Hotspots Of Endemism Research Articles

Royseux: a palaeobiodiversity hotspot in the Late Viséan (Carboniferous) of Belgium

1. IntroductionQuantifying biodiversity has become a major concern, not only for modern ecology and nature conservation, but also in the fossil record, where the aim is understanding the effects of global changes on the diversity of past life. During the last decade the palaeontological literature dealing with changes in biodiversity over large time scales (periods, stages) has increased significantly. Unfortunately, most papers failed the difficult task of pinpointing the origin of biodiversity: why so many taxa occur(ed) in a particular area at a particular time, why is the diversity not globally distributed, and why do many taxa occur only in localised areas? Biodiversity hotspots are sites or areas with an unusually high numbers of co-occurring species (Myers, 1988). Present-day biodiversity hotspots are defined as biogeographic areas where the density of co-occurring species is extraordinarily high (Marchese, 2015) and/or as areas with a high density of endemic species, most of which are currently suffering habitat loss (Myers et al., 2000). Although this definition is easily applicable to present biodiversity, it is difficult to recognise ancient biodiversity hotspots and few examples have been recorded (e.g. origin and shift of modern marine tropical hotspots of the Indo-Australian Archipelago: Renema et al., 2008; mollusc palaeo-hotspot in the Lutetian of the Paris Basin: Merle, 2008; endemic crinozoan hotspots in the Pennsylvanian of North America: Waters & Webster,

Cascading effects of cyclones on the biodiversity of Southwest Pacific islands

Human induced climate change is having a dramatic impact on global biodiversity and insular assemblages are particularly vulnerable. However, the cascading impacts of tropical cyclones on insular ecosystems are poorly understood and expected to grow with the increasing intensity of these events associated with future anthropogenic climate change. This problem is particularly relevant to islands of the Southwest Pacific, which are cyclone-prone and support high levels of endemic biodiversity. In this perspective, we present new information from a case study of the indirect effects of a tropical cyclone (Ita) on forest extent and integrity from an endemic hotspot, the Louisiade Archipelago of Papua New Guinea. We highlight how a cyclone event can be a catalyst for human-coping strategies that increase pressures on forest ecosystems and expose them to invasive plant species. These changes represent a major threat to forest-dependent bird species, many of which are endemic. Rather than being an isolated example, these observations provide an insight into human responses to climate change over cyclone-prone tropical islands/regions where human populations are reliant upon subsistence agriculture and the resources provided by forests. The cumulative anthropogenic impacts on forest ecosystems are potentially catastrophic to the future of island biodiversity and greater than the long-term shifts in mean climate.

Spatial extent and consequences of black bass (Micropterus spp.) invasion in a Cape Floristic Region river basin

Abstract Black bass (Micropterus spp.) are invasive fish that have adversely affected native fish communities in many regions of the world. They are known to threaten native fishes in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, a fish endemism hotspot, but the extent of invasion and consistency of impacts at river basin scales are not known. This study investigated the extent of black bass invasions in 41 tributaries in the Olifants–Doorn River basin (ODR) using above‐water observations, snorkel surveys and underwater video assessment. Physical barriers that defined the upper limit of black bass distributions in tributaries were measured. Black bass impacts on the densities and diversity of the native fish fauna across the basin were assessed. Black bass were found to have invaded 81% of stream habitat in the basin, with Micropterus dolomieu and Micropterus punctulatus consistently being blocked by physical barriers in the form of waterfalls, cascades and chutes. These barriers had a minimum height of 49 cm and a median height of 1.09 m. Small‐bodied cyprinid minnows (Barbus calidus and Pseudobarbus phlegethon) were consistently extirpated from black bass‐occupied reaches, while larger cyprinid species co‐occurred with black bass, but only when they were larger than 10 cm. These findings demonstrate the severe habitat loss to native fishes as a result of black bass invasion, and the prevention of the further spread and removal of black bass from these rivers should be a high conservation priority. The study demonstrates the critical role physical barriers play in preventing the extinction of native fish species and provides a basis for the planning of conservation interventions such as the construction of in‐stream invasion barriers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Connectivity of Marine Protected Areas and Its Relation with Total Kinetic Energy.

The East Continental Shelf (ECS) of Brazil is a hotspot of endemism and biodiversity of reef biota in the South Atlantic, hosting a number of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Connectivity of MPAs through larval dispersal influences recruitment, population dynamics, genetic structure and biogeography in coral reef ecosystems. Connectivity of protected reef ecosystem in the ECS was investigated with a hydrodynamic model (ROMS) forcing an Individual Based Model (IBM—Ichthyop), and used groupers (genus Mycteroperca) as functional group. The hydrodynamic output from ROMS was compared with satellite data and showed good agreement with observed surface fields. Eggs were released, in IBM experiments, from April to September along six years (2002–2007) in five MPAs along the ECS. Intrannual variability in recruitment and self-recruitment of grouper larvae was observed, as well as a negative correlation of these population parameters with total Kinetic Energy (KE) used as a metric of the physical environment. Higher KE leads to increased offshore advection of larvae, reduced total recruitment and connectivity of MPAs. Our results indicate high and uni-directional connectivity between MPAs from north to south influenced by the Brazil Current flowing in the same direction. Results also showed that some MPAs act predominantly as “sink” while others are mainly “source” areas.

Marine influence controls plant phenological dynamics in Mediterranean Mexico

Aims To assess the role of moisture in phenological timing in the mediterranean coastal flora of Baja California, and specifically to assess the role of coastal fog and ocean-derived moisture in plant phenology. Moisture seems to be the primary driver of flowering times and durations at the arid end of the mediterranean-climate region, where rainfall is often sporadic (temperature and day length can be expected to play a much lesser role as they are not growth limiting). We aimed to understand: What factors drive climatic variation between sites? Are there general flowering patterns allowing us to identify phenological categories? Do flowering patterns vary in relation to site-specific weather? and most importantly, does maritime influence on weather affect flowering dynamics in coastal mediterranean ecosystems? Methods The southernmost extent of the California Floristic Province (in Baja California, Mexico) is a biological diversity hotspot of high endemism and conservation value, with two steep moisture gradients: rainfall (N–S) and coastal fogs (W–E), providing an ideal study system. We installed five weather stations across the moisture gradients, recording data hourly. We monitored flowering phenology in the square kilometer surrounding each weather station from 2010 to 2013. About 86 plant taxa were monitored across the five sites, every 6–8 weeks. Averaged climatic data is presented with general trends in flowering, and specific flowering syndromes were observed. Data for flowering intensity across the sites was analyzed using a principal components analysis. Important Findings Data analysis demonstrates a general seasonal pattern in flowering times, but distinct differences in local weather and phenology between the five study sites. Three flowering syndromes are revealed in the flora: (i) water responders or spring bloomers, (ii) day-length responders or fall-blooming taxa and (iii) aseasonal bloomers with no seasonal affinity. The two moisture gradients are the strongest drivers of flowering times. Inland sites showed higher phenological variation than coastal sites where seasonality is dampened by ocean-derived moisture, which extends and buffers perennial plant phenology and is a probable driver of local endemism. Phenological controls vary globally with climate and geography; moisture is the primary driver of phenology in mediterranean climates and fog is an important climatic variable in coastal Mexico.

Taxonomy and biogeography ofBunopus spatalurus(Reptilia; Gekkonidae) from the Arabian Peninsula

In the last decade, taxonomic studies have drastically increased the number of species known to inhabit the Arabian deserts. While ongoing phylogenetic studies continue to identify new species and high levels of intraspecific genetic diversity, few studies have yet explored the biogeographic patterns in this arid region using an integrative approach. In the present work, we apply different phylogenetic methods to infer relationships within the Palearctic naked-toed geckos. We specifically address for the first time the taxonomy and biogeography of Bunopus spatalurus Anderson, 1901, from Arabia using multilocus concatenated and species tree phylogenies, haplotype networks and morphology. We also use species distribution modelling and phylogeographic interpolation to explore the phylogeographic structure of Bunopus spatalurus hajarensis in the Hajar Mountains and the roles of climatic stability and possible biogeographic barriers on lineage occurrence and contact zones in this arid mountain endemism hot spot. According to the inferred topology recovered using concatenated and species tree methods, the genus ‘Bunopus’ is polyphyletic. Bunopus tuberculatus and B. blanfordii form a highly supported clade closely related to Crossobamon orientalis, while the two subspecies of ‘Bunopus’ spatalurus branch together as an independent highly supported clade that diverged during the Miocene according to our estimations. Within B. s. hajarensis, three geographically structured clades can be recognized that according to our estimations diverged during the Late Miocene to Pliocene. The paleodistribution models indicate climatic stability during the Late Pleistocene and the lineage occurrence, and predicted contact zones obtained from phylogeographic interpolation therefore probably result from the older splits of the groups when these lineages originated in allopatry. As demonstrated by the results of the multilocus molecular phylogenetic analyses and the topological test carried out in this study, the genus ‘Bunopus’ is not monophyletic. To resolve this, we resurrect the genus Trachydactylus Haas and Battersby, 1959; for the species formerly referred to as Bunopus spatalurus. Considering the morphological differences, the high level of genetic differentiation in the 12S mitochondrial gene and the results of the phylogenetic and the cmos haplotype network analysis, we elevate Trachydactylus spatalurus hajarensis to the species level Trachydactylus hajarensis (Arnold, 1980).

Land-Sparing Agriculture Best Protects Avian Phylogenetic Diversity

The conversion of natural habitats to farmland is a major driver of the global extinction crisis. Two strategies are promoted to mitigate the impacts of agricultural expansion on biodiversity: land sharing integrates wildlife-friendly habitats within farmland landscapes, and land sparing intensifies farming to allow the offset of natural reserves. A key question is which strategy would protect the most phylogenetic diversity--the total evolutionary history shared across all species within a community. Conserving phylogenetic diversity decreases the chance of losing unique phenotypic and ecological traits and provides benefits for ecosystem function and stability. Focusing on birds in the threatened Chocó-Andes hotspot of endemism, we tested the relative benefits of each strategy for retaining phylogenetic diversity in tropical cloud forest landscapes threatened by cattle pastures. Using landscape simulations, we find that land sharing would protect lower community-level phylogenetic diversity than land sparing and that with increasing distance from forest (from 500 to >1,500 m), land sharing is increasingly inferior to land sparing. Isolation from forest also leads to the loss of more evolutionarily distinct species from communities within land-sharing landscapes, which can be avoided with effective land sparing. Land-sharing policies that promote the integration of small-scale wildlife-friendly habitats might be of limited benefit without the simultaneous protection of larger blocks of natural habitat, which is most likely to be achieved via land-sparing measures.

Eco-geographical factors affecting richness and phylogenetic diversity patterns of high-mountain flora in the Iberian Peninsula

Many studies have highlighted the importance of mountain ecosystems as hotspots of biodiversity and endemism. In this study, we used biogeographic partitioning to explore the diversity patterns of high-mountain flora in south-western Europe by analysing the richness of the main floristic elements in relation to geographical and ecological factors (climate, isolation, elevation, etc.). Taxa that inhabit above 1600 m a.s.l. in the Iberian Peninsula were selected using bibliographic sources. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) were used to explore the patterns of taxonomic diversity across the main biogeographic elements. Six environmental variables were calculated to account for inter-range variation in species richness and biogeographic elements. The results showed that at a broad scale, the main floristic elements correlated with specific eco-geographical factors. The Arctic–Boreal element was strongly, negatively correlated with summer drought and showed a higher taxonomic distinctness than expected. The Iberian endemic element was related to isolation and maximum elevation and although it was the richest element, it demonstrated a relatively low taxonomic diversity, in particular in the Baetic Range. Biogeographic origin is an important driver of the diversity patterns of high-mountain flora. In the Iberian Peninsula, these patterns show a North–South gradient, which reflects historical processes of migration and speciation that were constrained by climatic fluctuations during the Ice Ages. Although species richness is the usual biodiversity measure considered in conservation strategies, the use of taxonomically related indices helps to understand better the general diversity patterns and to better document strategies of biodiversity conservation.

¿La crisis de la biodiversidad es la crisis de la taxonomía?

El compromiso de integrar una lista florística que plasme el conocimiento de la diversidad vegetal a corto plazo, solamente será alcanzado con un cuerpo sólido de taxónomos especialistas, el cual, en lugar de fortalecerse, más bien parece estar en decaimiento. Los objetivos de este trabajo son discutir el papel que han jugado los taxónomos mexicanos en el conocimiento de la flora de México y cuál es el capital humano con que se cuenta en la actualidad, así como analizar el conocimiento que se tiene actualmente sobre la flora de México y su relevancia en las estrategias de conservación de la biodiversidad. Se proponen además, estudios novedosos que podrían complementar el conocimiento taxonómico para lograr definir las zonas más importantes de riqueza y endemicidad ( hotspots ) que complementen o actualicen nuestro Sistema Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas. Los principales resultados señalan que la tasa de descripción de especies nuevas todavía muestra un sesgo importante en el número total de especies en la flora mexicana, ya que cada año se adiciona un número importante, ya sea como especies o como registros nuevos. Gran parte del descubrimiento de la diversidad faltante es obtenido con la revisión especializada del estudio de las colecciones científicas, aunque el número de taxónomos especialistas ha sufrido una disminución considerable. Se discuten algunas líneas emergentes de estudio que han ayudado a definir mejores estrategias de búsqueda y análisis de la biodiversidad, que seguramente facilitarán el trabajo de exploración e investigación de este componente desconocido de la diversidad vegetal del país. Se propone que, evitando la crisis que enfrenta actualmente la taxonomía, se minimizará de manera importante la crisis de la biodiversidad y de otras áreas de investigación afines. Desafortunadamente, el problema de la desaparición de los taxónomos en el mundo (y México no es la excepción), se debe en gran parte a los mecanismos de evaluación de la producción académica, a los ingresos obtenidos mediante recursos extraordinarios (subsidios a proyectos), y al factor de impacto de las revistas donde se publican los resultados. Se debe resolver esto para evitar considerarlos una especie en extinción.

Aquatic insects in the Dinarides: identifying hotspots of endemism and species richness shaped by geological and hydrological history using Empididae (Diptera)

AbstractWe identify local hotspots of elevated species richness and endemicity of aquatic insects in the Dinarides (Balkans) using aquatic Empididae (Diptera) as models and compared observed patterns with historical geological and hydrological changes in the region.We analysed species richness and reciprocal weighted endemicity. Parsimony analysis of endemism was used to generate an historical hypothesis of the relationships between the aquatic Empididae biotas of different regions of local endemism within the Dinarides and the results reconciled with the geological and hydrological history of the region.Hotspots of high endemicity were coincident with areas of elevated species richness and were located primarily in the northwest Dinarides, central Bosnia & Herzegovina, and southeast Montenegro. Parsimony analysis of endemism retrieved three weakly supported area clades comprising areas of southeast Dinarides together with disjunct areas at the western Dinarides, and central Bosnia & Herzegovina together with the disjunct northwest Dinarides.The aquatic Empididae fauna of the northwest Dinarides has been strongly influenced by dispersal from the European Alps, whereas that at the southern end of the range may have been shaped by immigration from ranges further south. In the central Dinarides, progressive fragmentation of the hydrological network through orogenesis, karstification, redistribution of flysch deposits, and saline ingressions may underlie current diversity patterns with populations becoming increasingly isolated and focused within refugia.Hotspots of endemism and diversity are not necessarily coincident with protected areas and further work will be needed if they are to be reconciled with future planning of conservation priorities.

Plant diversity and ecology of ultramafic outcrops in Sabah (Malaysia)

Ultramafic outcrops occupy less than 1% of the land surface of the Earth and are renowned as hotspots of plant diversity and endemism. With over 3500 km2 of ultramafic outcrops in Sabah (4.6% of the total landmass of the state) on the island of Borneo and a total of 4252 plant species recorded occurring on this substrate, Malaysia has one of the most species-rich floras occupying these outcrops globally. Over 2542 plant species have been documented on ultramafic outcrops in Kinabalu Park alone, of which a large percentage is endemic to either Kinabalu Park or Borneo. Despite the existence of this species rich flora, the full plant diversity and ecology remains largely unknown because of a lack of focussed research. Furthermore, plant diversity in many areas of Sabah is severely threatened by land-use conversion and, because many plant species occur only in a single or a few ultramafic sites, impacts on the ecosystems that support them could eventually result in their extinction.

Population connectivity and the effectiveness of marine protected areas to protect vulnerable, exploited and endemic coral reef fishes at an endemic hotspot

Marine protected areas (MPAs) aim to mitigate anthropogenic impacts by conserving biodiversity and preventing overfishing. The effectiveness of MPAs depends on population connectivity patterns between protected and non-protected areas. Remote islands are endemism hotspots for coral reef fishes and provide rare examples of coral reefs with limited fishing pressure. This study explored population genetic connectivity across a network of protected and non-protected areas for the endemic wrasse, Coris bulbifrons, which is listed as “vulnerable” by the IUCN due to its small, decreasing geographic range and declining abundance. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and microsatellite DNA (msatDNA) markers were used to estimate historic and contemporary gene flow to determine the level of population self-replenishment and to measure genetic and genotypic diversity among all four locations in the species range (south-west Pacific Ocean)—Middleton Reef (MR), Elizabeth Reef (ER), Lord Howe Island (LHI) and Norfolk Island (NI). MPAs exist at MR and LHI and are limited or non-existent at ER and NI, respectively. There was no obvious differentiation in mtDNA among locations, however, msatDNA revealed differentiation between the most peripheral (NI) and all remaining locations (MR, ER and LHI). Despite high mtDNA connectivity (M = 259–1,144), msatDNA connectivity was limited (M = 3–9) with high self-replenishment (68–93 %) at all locations. NI is the least connected and heavily reliant on self-replenishment, and the absence of MPAs at NI needs to be rectified to ensure the persistence of endemic species at this location. Other endemic fishes exhibit similar patterns of high self-replenishment across the four locations, indicating that a single spatial management approach consisting of a MPA network protecting part of each location could provide reasonable protection for these species. Thus, the existing network of MPAs at this endemic hotspot appears adequate at some locations, but not at all.

Spatial incongruence among hotspots and complementary areas of tree diversity in southern Africa

AbstractAimBiodiversity hotspots have important roles in conservation prioritisation, but efficient methods for selecting among them remain debated.LocationSouthern Africa.MethodsIn this study, we used data on the dated phylogeny and geographical distribution of 1400 tree species in southern Africa to map regional hotspots of species richness (SR), phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE), species endemism (CWE), and evolutionary distinctiveness and global endangerment (EDGE). In addition, we evaluated the efficiency of hotspots in capturing complementary areas of species richness and phylogenetic diversity. We examined the spatial overlap among hotspots for each metric, and review how well one metric may serve as a surrogate for others. We then evaluated the effectiveness of current conservation areas in capturing these different facets of diversity and complementary areas. Lastly, we explored the environmental factors influencing the distribution of these diversity metrics in southern Africa.ResultsWe reveal large spatial incongruence between biodiversity indices, resulting in unequal representation of PD, SR, PE, CWE and EDGE in hotspots and currently protected areas. Notably, no hotspot area is shared among all five measures, and 69% of hotspot areas were unique to a single diversity metric. Areas selected using complementarity are even more dispersed, but capture rare diversity that is overlooked by the hotspot approach.Main conclusionsAn integrative approach that considers multiple facets of biodiversity is needed if we are to maximise the conservation of tree diversity in southern Africa.

Results of the global conservation assessment of the freshwater crabs (Brachyura, Pseudothelphusidae and Trichodactylidae): The Neotropical region, with an update on diversity

The freshwater crabs of the Neotropics comprise 311 species in two families (Pseudothelphusidae and Trichodactylidae) and one or both of these families are found in all of the countries in the Neotropical region (except for Chile and some of the Caribbean islands). Colombia (102 species, 81% endemic) and Mexico (67 species, 95% endemic) are the biodiversity hotspots of freshwater crab species richness and country-level endemism for this region. The results of the IUCN Red List conservation assessments show that 34% of pseudothelphusids and 10% of trichodactylids have an elevated risk of extinction, 29% of pseudothelphusids and 75% of trichodactylids are not at-risk (Least Concern), and although none are actually extinct, 56% of pseudothelphusids and 17% of trichodactylids are too poorly known to assess (Data Deficient). Colombia (14 species), Venezuela (7 species), Mexico (6 species), and Ecuador (5 species) are the countries with the highest number of threatened species of Neotropical freshwater crabs. The majority of threatened species are restricted-range semiterrestrial endemics living in habitats subjected to deforestation, alteration of drainage patterns, and pollution. This underlines the need to prioritize and develop conservation measures before species decline to levels from which they cannot recover. These results represent a baseline that can be used to design strategies to save threatened Neotropical species of freshwater crabs.

A new species of Muscicapa flycatcher from Sulawesi, Indonesia.

The Indonesian island of Sulawesi, a globally important hotspot of avian endemism, has been relatively poorly studied ornithologically, to the extent that several new bird species from the region have been described to science only recently, and others have been observed and photographed, but never before collected or named to science. One of these is a new species of Muscicapa flycatcher that has been observed on several occasions since 1997. We collected two specimens in Central Sulawesi in 2012, and based on a combination of morphological, vocal and genetic characters, we describe the new species herein, more than 15 years after the first observations. The new species is superficially similar to the highly migratory, boreal-breeding Gray-streaked Flycatcher Muscicapa griseisticta, which winters in Sulawesi; however, the new species differs strongly from M. griseisticta in several morphological characters, song, and mtDNA. Based on mtDNA, the new species is only distantly related to M. griseisticta, instead being a member of the M. dauurica clade. The new species is evidently widely distributed in lowland and submontane forest throughout Sulawesi. This wide distribution coupled with the species' apparent tolerance of disturbed habitats suggests it is not currently threatened with extinction.

Weak impact of tourism activities on biodiversity in a subterranean hotspot of endemism and its implications for the conservation of cave fauna

Abstract La Verna chamber (France, western Pyrenees), the largest underground chamber in France, hosts 18 species of endemic hypogean invertebrates, all highly modified (troglobitic). It was recently opened for tourism activities. To estimate the risks incurred by its fauna in this new environmental context, we conducted a 3‐year survey of the terrestrial fauna of the cave, focusing on the four steno‐endemic species of beetles present. We established five sampling spots in the chamber that were monitored every 3 to 4 months during 3 years. Our results did not detect any negative impact of the tourism activity on cave biodiversity. Neither the number of observed specimens nor the species richness decreased in the control spots. The huge size of the chamber is assumed to prevent significant microclimatic changes and the presence of very large boulders and cracks is assumed to offer plenty of suitable spaces, which allow invertebrates to escape local disturbance and illumination. In spite of the high vulnerability of cave organisms, disturbance of cave habitats does not necessarily result in biodiversity decrease, if the cave disturbance is limited in duration, intensity, and spatial coverage with respect to the cave size.

Contact heterogeneity, rather than transmission efficiency, limits the emergence and spread of canine influenza virus.

Host-range shifts in influenza virus are a major risk factor for pandemics. A key question in the study of emerging zoonoses is how the evolution of transmission efficiency interacts with heterogeneity in contact patterns in the new host species, as this interplay influences disease dynamics and prospects for control. Here we use a synergistic mixture of models and data to tease apart the evolutionary and demographic processes controlling a host-range shift in equine H3N8-derived canine influenza virus (CIV). CIV has experienced 15 years of continuous transfer among dogs in the United States, but maintains a patchy distribution, characterized by sporadic short-lived outbreaks coupled with endemic hotspots in large animal shelters. We show that CIV has a high reproductive potential in these facilities (mean R0 = 3.9) and that these hotspots act as refugia from the sparsely connected majority of the dog population. Intriguingly, CIV has evolved a transmission efficiency that closely matches the minimum required to persist in these refugia, leaving it poised on the extinction/invasion threshold of the host contact network. Corresponding phylogenetic analyses show strong geographic clustering in three US regions, and that the effective reproductive number of the virus (Re) in the general dog population is close to 1.0. Our results highlight the critical role of host contact structure in CIV dynamics, and show how host contact networks could shape the evolution of pathogen transmission efficiency. Importantly, efficient control measures could eradicate the virus, in turn minimizing the risk of future sustained transmission among companion dogs that could represent a potential new axis to the human-animal interface for influenza.

A new microhylid frog, genus Rhombophryne, from northeastern Madagascar, and a re-description of R. serratopalpebrosa using micro-computed tomography.

The rainforests of the Marojejy massif in northern Madagascar are a well-known hotspot of amphibian species diversity and endemism. In the present paper, we re-describe Rhombophryne serratopalpebrosa (Guibé 1975), a cophyline microhylid frog from high altitude on this massif, based on a re-examination of its holotype, and describe Rhombophryne vaventy sp. nov. using characters of external morphology and osteology, illustrated by pdf-embedded comparative 3D models of their skeletons. Rhombophryne serratopalpebrosa differs from R. vaventy sp. nov. by smaller size (28 mm snout-vent length vs. 52.9 mm), skin texture (granular vs. rough and tubercular skin respectively), supratympanic fold shape (strong, long and straight reaching the eye vs. curved and not extending anteriorly beyond the tympanum), relative tympanum diameter (78% vs. 41% of eye diameter), shape of the postchoanal prevomerine palate, shape of the footplate of the columella, length of prepollex, and by other subtle osteological features. Morphological comparisons suggest that a specimen from Ambolokopatrika assigned to R. serratopalpebrosa in previous genetic studies might belong to yet another undescribed species, closely related to R. vaventy sp. nov., whereas DNA sequences of the topotypic R. serratopalpebrosa remain unknown. We therefore emphasise the need for collecting additional material from high altitudes of the Marojejy massif to understand the systematics, as well as the natural history, of this poorly known species. For the new species described herein, we propose a Red List threat status of Vulnerable, in line with other Marojejy endemics from a similar altitude.

An assessment of the efficiency of protection status through determinations of biodiversity hotspots based on endemic bird species, Taiwan

Evaluations of species richness patterns have been performed at diverse scales, and biodiversity hotspots, especially endemism hotspots, have received much attention in conservation biology. We estimated the distributions of endemic bird species based on a 12-yr avian inventory project in Taiwan, identified biodiversity hotspots of endemism on a regional scale based on predictions from the ensemble forecasting framework and frequency histogram approach, and assessed the efficiency of protected areas. The results indicated that the predicted endemism hotspots were mostly located in mid- and high-elevation areas along the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan. An observed endemism hotspot was defined as one in which at least five of Taiwan's 17 endemic bird species were present. This criterion was used because the 5% of the sampled grid squares that were the richest in endemic bird species all had 5 endemic bird species or more. Seventy to seventy-one percent of the observed biodiversity hotspots matched the predicted biodiversity hotspots. This outcome was obtained whether the richness biodiversity in a grid square was based on summed predicted probability or summed predicted richness. The majority of the protected areas for these Taiwanese endemic bird species were national parks, protecting 24.1% of the predicted hotspot areas, whereas nature reserves and wildlife refuges protected less than 7%. Most of the predicted endemism hotspots were not adequately protected. We conclude that the ensemble forecasting framework and the frequency histogram approach are useful for selecting critical habitats and biodiversity hotspots for endemic species and for appraising the efficiency of the protection status provided by governments.

Spatial variation in the climatic predictors of species compositional turnover and endemism.

Previous research focusing on broad-scale or geographically invariant species-environment dependencies suggest that temperature-related variables explain more of the variation in reptile distributions than precipitation. However, species–environment relationships may exhibit considerable spatial variation contingent upon the geographic nuances that vary between locations. Broad-scale, geographically invariant analyses may mask this local variation and their findings may not generalize to different locations at local scales. We assess how reptile–climatic relationships change with varying spatial scale, location, and direction. Since the spatial distributions of diversity and endemism hotspots differ for other species groups, we also assess whether reptile species turnover and endemism hotspots are influenced differently by climatic predictors. Using New Zealand reptiles as an example, the variation in species turnover, endemism and turnover in climatic variables was measured using directional moving window analyses, rotated through 360°. Correlations between the species turnover, endemism and climatic turnover results generated by each rotation of the moving window were analysed using multivariate generalized linear models applied at national, regional, and local scales. At national-scale, temperature turnover consistently exhibited the greatest influence on species turnover and endemism, but model predictive capacity was low (typically r2 = 0.05, P < 0.001). At regional scales the relative influence of temperature and precipitation turnover varied between regions, although model predictive capacity was also generally low. Climatic turnover was considerably more predictive of species turnover and endemism at local scales (e.g., r2 = 0.65, P < 0.001). While temperature turnover had the greatest effect in one locale (the northern North Island), there was substantial variation in the relative influence of temperature and precipitation predictors in the remaining four locales. Species turnover and endemism hotspots often occurred in different locations. Climatic predictors had a smaller influence on endemism. Our results caution against assuming that variability in temperature will always be most predictive of reptile biodiversity across different spatial scales, locations and directions. The influence of climatic turnover on the species turnover and endemism of other taxa may exhibit similar patterns of spatial variation. Such intricate variation might be discerned more readily if studies at broad scales are complemented by geographically variant, local-scale analyses.