End Of Life Strategies Research Articles

A multiple lifecycle-based approach to sustainable product configuration design

Research on end-of-life (EoL) product recovery has focused on adopting reuse, remanufacturing, and/or recycling after product use. These product EoL strategies need to be considered early during product design in order to reduce the total lifecycle cost, minimize environmental impact, and enhance overall product sustainability. Considering the implementation of such EoL strategies across multiple lifecycles of a product will enable maximum recovery of the materials and embedded energy from previous lifecycle products for use in subsequent lifecycle products. Such practices can help companies increase global manufacturing competitiveness and promote corporate social responsibility for more sustainable economic growth. However, a multi-lifecycle based approach to product configuration design optimization, simultaneously considering conflicting objectives, has not been well addressed in previous studies. In this study, a multi-lifecycle based methodology is proposed to solve multi-objective product configuration design problems considering conflicting economic and environmental objectives. The methodology addresses issues across all the lifecycle stages, from extracting raw materials to product EoL recovery (i.e., pre-manufacturing, manufacturing, use, and post-use), and the entire demand cycle. The multi-objective optimization problem can be solved by introducing a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II using which various product design solutions can be generated by considering the tradeoff between several objectives. The proposed methodology is implemented on an industrial case study for the configuration design of toner cartridges. The Pareto optimal solutions yield better economic and environmental performances compared to the performance of the base toner cartridge. The results show that following the multi-lifecycle based approach to implement EoL strategies (i.e., reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling) could provide over 20% savings in total lifecycle cost, total global warming potential, and total water use in comparison to the same product configuration made up with entirely new components.

A comprehensive end-of-life strategy decision making approach to handle uncertainty in the product design stage

This study employs fuzzy logic to evaluate uncertain component end-of-life (EOL) options in the design stage. Determining EOL strategies during the product design stage can be complex. For example, EOL strategies for retired bicycle components are various and may change with geographic location. Thus, adopting fixed EOL strategies in the product design stage may not always be appropriate; the element of uncertainty should be considered. Limited research has examined uncertainty of EOL strategies during the design stage. Moreover, the evaluation of EOL strategies in a comprehensive manner has not been shown in a realistic case study. These facts motivate this investigation. Fourteen evaluation criteria are used to generate a comprehensive framework for assessing seven EOL strategies. The evaluation process generates the likelihood for each of these strategies by aggregating fuzzy set operations and a left–right fuzzy ranking method. Using SUMPRODUCT calculation for these weights/probabilities and input sustainability value (i.e., cost, environmental impact and labor time), expected values are derived to represent the sustainability values for each EOL strategy. A Technique-for-Order-of-Preference-by-Similarity-to-Ideal-Solution (TOPSIS) based method is employed to identify the appropriate EOL strategy for each component/product. A refrigerator is used as a case study to illustrate the methodology. This study addresses the uncertainty involved in identifying an EOL strategy for a specific product component during the design stage through the use of fuzzy logic. The method closes a gap in the current EOL strategy assessment criteria and introduces a comprehensive evaluation framework to capture multiple strategic perspectives by incorporating 14 key evaluation criteria.

Integration of dismantling operations into a value recovery plan for circular economy

Traditional linear production mode “take-make-dispose” has brought about increasing resource scarcity, great environmental cost and endangered human health. To address the problem, the concept of circular economy has been introduced and accepted as a solution. In a circular economy, end-of-life (EOL) products can be introduced into multiple life cycles, which maximize the utility and value of components and materials. The economic viability of value recovery from an EOL product is greatly affected by the plan and technologies used for dismantling that product. This paper presents an approach to find a profitable EOL strategy, which includes a method for generating a dismantling transition matrix and making decisions on the best dismantling sequence, level, and EOL options for components/parts. A preservative disassembly transition matrix is a description of possible ways to disassemble a product into individual parts without any damage. A guideline is created to include destructive and automated operations in order to expand a preservative disassembly matrix into a dismantling transition matrix, because dismantling EOL products might produce more profit than pure preservative disassembly. Based on the dismantling transition matrix, binary integer programming is used to formulate EOL product value recovery while considering possible options for components/subassemblies as well as the transition cost between dismantling operations, tools costs, and recycling regulations or goals. A hard disk drive (HDD) is used as a case study to demonstrate the approach.

Application of grey relational analysis for material and end of life strategy selection with multiple criteria

Material selection is a vital phase in product development as it considers several criteria and solves trade-offs that exist among the criteria. Also, the environmental considerations are gaining importance. This article deals with the material selection process with reference to the application of an automotive component. The study presents an integrated approach for material selection coupled with the end of life (EoL) strategy. Grey relational analysis (GRA) was used to provide the solution by ranking materials considering cost, material properties and environmental impacts. EoL and strategy of the materials were also considered in ranking. The combinations were ranked using GRA in the order: SL-REU, SL-REP, SL-REN, SL-REC, SL-REM, AL-REU, AL-REC, AL-REM, AL-REP, PP-REU, ABS-REU, ABS-REC, PP-REC. The ranking configured that steel with reuse strategy as the most favourable material, considering repair, reconditioning, recycle and remanufacturing EoL options for steel. The approach combining material properties with EoL strategy will enable the selection of suitable material. The results of the study indicated the feasibility of evaluating material options using the developed multi-criteria approach.

Application of grey relational analysis for material and end of life strategy selection with multiple criteria

Material selection is a vital phase in product development as it considers several criteria and solves trade-offs that exist among the criteria. Also, the environmental considerations are gaining importance. This article deals with the material selection process with reference to the application of an automotive component. The study presents an integrated approach for material selection coupled with the end of life (EoL) strategy. Grey relational analysis (GRA) was used to provide the solution by ranking materials considering cost, material properties and environmental impacts. EoL and strategy of the materials were also considered in ranking. The combinations were ranked using GRA in the order: SL-REU, SL-REP, SL-REN, SL-REC, SL-REM, AL-REU, AL-REC, AL-REM, AL-REP, PP-REU, ABS-REU, ABS-REC, PP-REC. The ranking configured that steel with reuse strategy as the most favourable material, considering repair, reconditioning, recycle and remanufacturing EoL options for steel. The approach combining material properties with EoL strategy will enable the selection of suitable material. The results of the study indicated the feasibility of evaluating material options using the developed multi-criteria approach.

A holistic decision support tool for remanufacturing: end-of-life (EOL) strategy planning

Remanufacturing is a key enabler for sustainable production due to its effectiveness in closing the loop on material flows, extending product life cycle and reducing production waste and emission. In this paper, a holistic decision support tool to facilitate the product end-of-life (EOL) strategy planning, specifically using remanufacturing as a key strategy is presented. The proposed model incorporates checklist methods to evaluate the viability of conducting remanufacturing for a product and its components. An optimization model for determining the Pareto set of optimal EOL strategies that correspond to maximum economic profit and minimum environmental impact is presented. Since determination of this Pareto set via enumeration of all EOL strategies is prohibitively time-consuming, even for a product with a small number of components, genetic algorithm (GA), specifically NSGA-II has been utilized to achieve rapid calculation of the set of optimum EOL strategies. This NSGA-II method permits extensive sensitivity analysis to understand thoroughly the impact of situational variables, such as reverse logistic cost, technology and replacement part availability, etc., on the EOL decision making, i.e., Pareto front, and thus leading to improved strategy planning and better product design. The case study involving EOL treatment of two types of desktop phones is described to illustrate the utility of the proposed methodology.

Application of GRA for Sustainable Material Selection and Evaluation Using LCA

Material selection is identified as a successful key parameter in establishing any product to be sustainable, considering its end of life (EoL) characteristics. An accurate understanding of expected service conditions and environmental considerations are crucial in the selection of material plays a vital role with overwhelming customer expectations and stringent laws. Therefore, this article presents an integrated approach for sustainable material selection using grey relational analysis (GRA) considering the EoL disposal strategies with respect to an automotive product. GRA, an impact evaluation model measures the degree of similarity between the comparability (choice of material) sequence and reference (EoL strategies) sequence based on the relational grade. The ranking result shows that the outranking relationships in the order, ABS-REC > PP-INC > AL-REM > PP-LND > ABS-LND > ABS-INC > PU-LND > AL-REC > AL-LND > PU-INC > AL-INC. The best sustainable material selected was ABS and recycling was selected as the best EoL strategy with the grey relational value of 2.43856. The best material selected by this approach, ABS was evaluated for its viability using life cycle assessment and the estimated impacts also proved the practicability of the selected material highlighting the focus on dehumidification step in the manufacturing of the case product using this developed multi-criteria approach.

Evaluation of the impacts of end-of-life management strategies for deconstruction of a high-rise concrete framed office building

Recently, greater attentions have been started to put on the end-of-life (EoL) phase of buildings. Recycling, reuse and incineration of deconstructed wastes can help relieve the landfill burden and recover some energy from existing building materials in order to reduce environment impacts and/or reduce energy consumption. Life cycle energy assessment (LCEA) was performed for the EoL phase of a high-rise concrete office building in Hong Kong. The amount of energy that could be saved at the EoL phase through implementation of a specific EoL management strategy was evaluated in terms of energy saving potential (ESP), which was defined as the percentage of energy savings from the salvage materials to the total embodied energy of the building during its initial construction. Recycling of aluminum (30.7% ESP) and recycling of external walls (30.6% ESP) contributed to most of the total energy saving. Maximum reuse provided higher energy savings than maximum recycling (38.5% vs 35.9% ESP), while maximum incineration was not able to bring any energy saving (−44.8% ESP). In addition, the best EoL management strategies for different materials and elements were found to vary with time after taking the remaining proportions of embodied energy into considerations. Implementing the best EoL management strategies for different materials gave an ESP of 54.4% for 50-year life span. The life span of a building exerted considerable influences on the amount of energy saving. Highest energy saving was gained by implementing the best EoL strategies for 70-year life span.

Lifespan Extension for Environmental Benefits: A new Concept of Products with Several Distinct Usage Phases

End-of-Life (EoL) strategies, and especially products’ lifespan extension, are becoming key issues for more and more manufacturers. Their implementations have to be done from the design stage and may be facilitated with design methodologies and guidelines. However, if a function of the system is no longer efficient enough during its use phase, in such a way that remanufacturing and upgrading may not be considered, the system has reached its final EoL, even if it might have been used for other applications.To address such kind of situations, the present paper investigates the concept of Design-2-Life (D2L) systems. To do so, EoL strategies will be explored to understand the key issues. Then a clear explanation of D2L concept will be proposed as well as its main characteristics. Finally we will discuss the challenges of this new approach and the advantages to develop it under a PSS framework. The case of batteries used in electric cars will be used to illustrate the concept.

A sustainable modular product design approach with key components and uncertain end-of-life strategy consideration

Today, sustainability emphasis is imperative for modern design and manufacturing enterprises; therefore, sustainability assessment has attracted increasing attention. In this study, we use cost, environmental impact, and labor time as indicators to measure a comprehensive set of sustainability dimensions: economic, environmental, and social sustainability. Similarly, modular product design (MPD), due to its benefits to design and manufacturing, has been widely accepted as a useful strategy. The need for customizing MPD for various sustainability purposes across a product’s life cycle motivates this study. Our research goal is to develop a MPD approach to improve the product life cycle performance for dimensions of sustainability. We also concentrate on two current product design focused research gaps: (1) how to best handle key components and (2) taking into account life cycle uncertainty at the component or product end-of-life (EOL) stage. Key components represent core techniques and can have the highest sustainability impact. We specify key components and then develop three sustainable clustering algorithms to generate component modules based on the identified key components. For EOL uncertainty, we adopt fuzzy logic to assess 14 EOL characteristics and use modified transfer equations to convert fuzzy evaluations to designer’s perception toward sustainability. Left-right defuzzification method is employed to estimate the probability of each EOL strategy and calculate the expected EOL sustainability values for each component. The Module Structure Sustainability Index (MSSI) advances toward optimizing sustainability in order to determine the best component modules. A coffee maker case study is used to illustrate the proposed methodology.

A fuzzy logic-based approach to determine product component end-of-life option from the views of sustainability and designer's perception

In our time, an increasing awareness of short and long-term environmental impacts is driving manufacturers to reconsider the product design process with a view toward sustainability. Manufacturers have begun to consider the need for responsible resource use and management during the product life cycle, particularly during the product retirement phase. The determination of appropriate end-of-life (EOL) options for retired product components is a crucial issue relative to most manufactured products. To address it, the product design process must be modified to consider sustainability in a comprehensive manner. At present, only limited existing research integrates social sustainability into EOL option determinations; that gap, in part, stimulates this study. We also recognize that a product designer's background and experience will directly affect the EOL strategy selection. Therefore, incorporating the designer's perception along with sustainability dimensions into an EOL strategy determination is essential and also motivates this investigation. In our proposed approach, quantitative indicators are used to assess sustainability dimensions — economic (residual value), environmental (Eco-indicator) and social impact (job creation, human toxic potential and land use) — for each EOL option. The primary merit of this approach is transferring the essential but not directly relevant design preferences into sustainability analysis through fuzzy logic-based transformation equations. An expected value is derived to represent the sustainability value of each EOL option. An automobile gasoline engine is used as a case study to illustrate the methodology.

Nurses' perspectives: hospitalized older patients and end-of-life decision-making.

To explore pressing issues identified by nurses caring for older patients in US NICHE (Nurses Improving Care for the Healthsystem Elders) hospitals, regarding palliative care and end-of-life (EOL) decision-making. Objectives are to (1) identify the most pressing palliative care and EOL decision-making issues and strategies to address them and (2) identify the association of nursing demographics (age, gender, race, education and experience), institutional/unit characteristics and these issues. Critical care nurses have an integral role in supporting older patients and families faced with palliative care and EOL decision-making issues. Despite national imperatives to improve the quality of palliative care, patients continue to experience uncontrolled pain, inadequate communication, disregard of their wishes and life prolonging interventions. These contribute to increased hospitalizations and costs. Understanding the prevalent issues is needed to address patient needs at the end-of-life. It is a mixed method study. A secondary analysis of the NICHE Geriatric Institutional Assessment Profile (GIAP) database (collected 1/08-9/13) was conducted using the sample of Critical Care RNs who provided comments regarding palliative care and EOL decision-making. Qualitative data were analyzed using Dedoose software. Data clusters and patterns of co-occurring codes were explored through an iterative analysis process. Themes were examined across nurse demographics, institutional and unit characteristics. Comments specifically addressing issues regarding EOL decision-making were provided by 393 critical care nurses from 156 hospitals (x‾ age = 42·3 years, 51% BSN degree). Overarching theme was discordance in goals of care (prolonging life versus quality of life), ineffective physician-patient-family communication, lack of time and unrealistic expectations. Nurses' descriptions highlight the need for increased communication, staff education and availability of palliative care services. Palliative care and EOL decision-making will remain a nursing priority as people age and require increased care.

Modeling the Value Recovery of Rare Earth Permanent Magnets at End-of-Life

Permanent magnets containing rare earth elements (REEs) such as Dysprosium and Neodymium offer an advantage over non-REE containing magnets (e.g., ferrite and AlNiCo) in terms of power relative to size. However, REE availability has varied significantly in recent years leading to volatility in the cost of rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs). The supply of REEs can be increased by recycling consumer products and industrial machinery that contain REPMs at product end-of-life (EOL). This paper discusses the REE recovery process for EOL products. The optimal dismantling of products is examined with an emphasis placed on obtaining used REPMs. The challenge of collecting, managing, transporting, and processing used products is addressed through the development of a cost model for REPM recovery. This model is used to investigate several EOL strategies for recovering REPMs. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to identify the key factors that influence value recovery economics. A hard disk drive serves as a case study for model demonstration.

Conceptualizing ReX for Aggregating End-of-life Strategies in Product Development

Efforts towards a circular economy are accelerating and gaining more attention. Since product's lifecycle is mostly determined during early product development phases, it is crucial to support those phases with explicit strategic directions. This paper examines the possibility to aggregate various definitions of end-of-life (EoL) strategies in a visually compelling way. We propose a taxonomy for communication between multidisciplinary product development teams using ReX, an abbreviation for alternative EoL strategies starting with prefix ‘Re’, such as reduce, reuse, repurpose, repair, remanufacture, recycle, and recover. We construct our taxonomy based on a) EU Waste Directive, b) a systematic literature review, and c) relevant theoretical constructs. Then we discuss whether ReX allows assessing potential EoL alternatives, and steering the product development efforts. Finally, we suggest ReX for supporting decision-making when several stakeholders are involved, common language is sought for, and significant EoL related decisions are made at the early phases.

An innovative decision-support approach for design consideration EOL in feedback-based sustainable supply chain

With increasing environmental challenging, eco-design not only plays an important role but is also becoming the main focus of customer need in sustainable supply chain. Thus, eco-design may be considered as all EOL activities that includes the whole life cycle in the early stage of the green product development. We believe that, the consistent between design for X items (DFX) and end-of-life (EOL) is one important aspect that needs to be integrated. The work reported in this paper presented innovative decision-support approach for green product development procedure, focusing on application an EOL strategy feedback-based sustainable supply chain. We show that the innovative decision-support approach for green product development procedure consists of three phase: early design consideration, eco-design product function and problem-solving of green product from customer feedback phases. The proposed procedure will be demonstrated with customer complaint problem case for three interface component. Experiment and evaluation related to performance measurement of EOL activities effect in sustainable supply chain is discussed. Three metrics (precision, recall and F1) is compared with three approaches such as the proposed approach, traditional approach and eco-design approach.

EOL strategy planning for components of returned products

Remanufacturability assessment studies have been focused on analysing the feasibility whether a product can be remanufactured. However, not all components in a product are suitable for remanufacturing, e.g. some components may have to be disposed of due to wear and corrosion. This paper proposes a decision support tool to evaluate remanufacturability at the component level, to facilitate component end-of-life (EOL) strategy planning. The EOL strategies that maximize the expected savings under quality uncertainty are determined through comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analyses. A new approach is introduced to quantify and integrate environmental considerations into the decision-making process.

Comparative life cycle assessment of smartphone reuse: repurposing vs. refurbishment

Waste management for end-of-life (EoL) smartphones is a growing problem due to their high turnover rate and concentration of toxic chemicals. The versatility of modern smartphones presents an interesting alternative waste management strategy: repurposing. This paper investigates the environmental impact of smartphone repurposing as compared to traditional refurbishing using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). A case study of repurposing was conducted by creating a smartphone “app” that replicates the functionality of an in-car parking meter. The environmental impacts of this prototype were quantified using waste management LCA methodology. Studied systems included three waste management options: traditional refurbishment, repurposing using battery power, and repurposing using a portable solar charger. The functional unit was defined as the EoL management of a used smartphone. Consequential system expansion was employed to account for secondary functions provided; avoided impacts from displaced primary products were included. Impacts were calculated in five impact categories. Break-even displacement rates were calculated and sensitivity to standby power consumption were assessed. LCA results showed that refurbishing creates the highest environmental impacts of the three reuse routes in every impact category except ODP. High break-even displacement rates suggest that this finding is robust within a reasonable range of primary cell phone displacement. The repurposed smartphone in-car parking meter had lower impacts than the primary production parking meter. Impacts for battery-powered devices were dominated by use-phase charging electricity, whereas solar-power impacts were concentrated in manufacturing. Repurposed phones using battery power had lower impacts than those using solar power, however, standby power sensitivity analysis revealed that solar power is preferred if the battery charger is left plugged-in more than 20 % of the use period. Our analysis concludes that repurposing represents an environmentally preferable EoL option to refurbishing for used smartphones. The results suggest two generalizable findings. First, primary product displacement is a major factor affecting whether any EoL strategy is environmentally beneficial. The benefit depends not only on what is displaced, but also on how much displacement occurs; in general, repurposing allows freedom to target reuse opportunities with high “displacement potential.” Second, the notion that solar power is preferable to batteries is not always correct; here, the rank-order is sensitive to assumptions about user behavior.

Product Resynthesis: Knowledge Discovery of the Value of End-of-Life Assemblies and Subassemblies

The trends of increasing waste and comparatively low growth of waste treatment methodologies have created the need for better utilization of the products we deem unfit for use. The options available for utilizing end-of-life (EOL) products are currently restricted to reusing, recycling, remanufacturing, and permanent disposal. In this work, the authors propose a new EOL option called resynthesis that utilizes existing waste from EOL products in a novel way through the synthesis of assemblies/subassemblies across multiple domains (i.e., consumer electronics, health care, automotive, etc.). The resynthesis of assemblies/subassemblies is achieved by quantifying their similarities (form and function) across multiple domains. A mixed-integer linear model is developed to determine the optimal EOL strategy for each component/subassembly. As a means of verifying the EOL decision, the value of the “new” resynthesized product is compared with the value that would be derived if the individual subassemblies were reused, remanufactured, recycled, or disposed. A case study involving an electronic mouse is used to validate the proposed methodology and to demonstrate its practicality as an alternate enterprise level EOL option.

P119 Improving end of life care in Worcestershire: Advance care planning

Advance care planning (ACP) is a process of reflection and communication in which a person with decision making capacity is able to express his/her wishes regarding preferences and wishes for...

A decision-making approach for end-of-life strategies selection of used parts

End-of-life (EOL) strategies selection of used parts is important to ensure efficient resource utilization. However, the diversity and uncertainty of remaining life characteristics of used parts make the EOL strategies selection more complicated. To select appropriate EOL strategies scientifically and effectively, this paper proposes a decision-making approach for EOL strategies selection, considering remaining useful life (RUL) estimation and reliability analysis. By comparing the reliabilities of a used part at the end of its actual useful life and estimated RUL with its reliability threshold, the optimal EOL strategy of used part is determined. Furthermore, an EOL strategies evaluation support system (EOLSESS) is developed for easier application of the presented method. Finally, an illustrative example is provided to demonstrate the feasibility and validity of this method.