Enclave Tourism Research Articles

Standing the Test of Time: Neo–Traditionalism as Neoliberalism in Garifuna World Music

The encroachment of enclave tourism upon centuries-old villages of Afro-indigenous Garifuna along Honduras’s North Coast presents but one example of neoliberalism’s global ascendency during the 1990s. One way that the privatization of the commons materialized was in the commodification of “minority” cultural practices within nation-states -- what Charles Hale (2005) calls “neoliberal multiculturalism.” Mark Anderson (2013) observes that this “marketing of ethnicity produces the promise of inclusion at the potential price of cultural and territorial rights” (ibid.: 277-78). Garifuna cultural practices are pivotal to the promotion of Honduras as a tourist destination; however, visitors encounter visual art, costumes, music, and dance as forms of entertainment while remaining segregated from surrounding Garifuna communities. As a result, their market value is as “symbolic capital” which traffics in stereotypes and apolitical narratives (ibid.: 291).I argue that Garifuna music functions similarly as symbolic capital within the world music industry. I examine the success of Garifuna musical neo-traditionalism within this industry during the mid-aughts as contingent upon neoliberal marketing strategies akin to those implemented by the resorts built within Garifuna Central American coastal villages. Dale Chapman (2018) and Jay Hammond (2020) have noted a similar function for neo-traditionalism in present-day jazz scenes, whereby musicians mine past aesthetics and values for new forms of individual branding and new options for consumers. Moreover, the premium placed upon “timelessness” in these cases presents neo-traditional musical practices as a foil to musical styles too “untempered” and “common” (reminiscent of “the commons”) in comparison. Central to the story of Garifuna world music is its development as a preferred alternative to punta rock, which arose circa 1979 as a dance genre driven by youths soon realizing local punta and paranda rhythms on keyboards and drum machines. In contrast, the production of recordings by the Garifuna Collective and Aurelio Martinez from the early millennium until today—dominated by acoustic instruments and featuring time-tested, respected musicians steeped in traditional storytelling—takes a page from the Buena Vista Social Club phenomenon of the late 1990s to generate global esteem for Garifuna music and culture.

“Monument to Rottenness”: Postcolonial Enclave Tourism in Jamaica Kincaid’s A Small Place

“Monument to Rottenness”: Postcolonial Enclave Tourism in Jamaica Kincaid’s A Small Place

‘Come this close, but no closer!’ Enclave tourism development and social change in Falmouth, Jamaica

ABSTRACT The dominant type of tourism development in Jamaica is enclave tourism, characterized by rapid mushrooming of mega all-inclusive facilities – the enclaves. Tourism activities might seem innocuous but on the outside of the enclaves, they often create stark physical and social barriers which exclude and restrict the movements of local populations. The broad objective of this study, which is influenced by the theory of space ‘purification’ by Sibley (D. (1995). Geographies of exclusion: Society and difference in the west. London and New York: Routledge.), was to critically examine the exclusionary socio-cultural outcomes of tourism in the community of Falmouth, Jamaica, which has the most recent and largest cruise pier in the entire island. The empirical basis of this study centres on qualitative interviews, complemented by data from surveys with local residents. The principal finding of this research is that the Falmouth cruise pier is an ‘enclavic’ zone of inclusion of tourists but exclusion of the local residents, establishing a new wave of social change. The combination of physical boundaries such as perimeter walls and strong security presence in the town have been used to create and maintain social exclusiveness within the enclaves. Although there is some amount of social interaction between tourists and local residents, the research found that there is a general feeling of marginalization.

Explaining minority residents’ attitudes of ethnic enclave tourism from general perceptions of tourism impacts

ABSTRACTThis study examined how Brazilian and Korean residents in two Japanese towns differed in their views of tourism in general and ethnic neighborhood tourism (ENT) focused on their own culture and if their perceptions of tourism in general translate into their corresponding attitudes about ENT. A series of MANOVAs revealed that Brazilian residents held more positive views toward tourism in general and ENT than their Korean counterparts. Although the two groups differed in their perception of community benefits from tourism in general, they demonstrated a similar mix of hopes and worries regarding ENT. Results from multiple regression analyses also revealed that minority residents’ perceptions of tourism in general can be a significant predictor of their attitudes toward ENT explaining 4–40% of variance in the Brazilian sample and 4–12% in the Korean sample. These findings imply that perceptions of general tourism are precursors to perceptions of specific, niche forms of tourism. In a practical sense, this study underscores the importance of inviting residents’ opinion into the tourism planning process, especially in ENT contexts. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed at the close of the paper.

Nosy Be (Madagascar) and the neighbouring islands versus tourism development

Abstract Madagascar is one of the trendiest holiday destinations. One of two key destinations is Nosy Be and surrounding smaller islands. It can be considered a local tourist hub. This work aims to illustrate the variability of the region’s tourism evolution in reference to Butler’s concept, and to specify circumstances characteristic of tropical islands, especially in less developed countries. Typology of islands has been performed according to level of tourism development; moreover, the brief evolution of post-1960s tourism development was assessed. The archipelago’s evolutionary stages of tourism development are significantly diversified, evolution has been non-linear and not always unidirectional. It is difficult to observe all stages of the cycle. The stage tends to be hard to determine, evolutionary pace tends to vary, and some stages are absent. Regional under-development and external factors may cause a regression in development. No stage changes were observed on most islands where enclave tourism developed.

Lecciones desde África: Impacto socioeconómico del enclave turístico en Livingstone, Zambia

El presente artículo emplea el paradigma de dependencia para ilustrar los impactos socioeconómicos del turismo de enclave en países en desarrollo utilizando la ciudad de Livingstone en Zambia (África) como caso de estudio. Utilizando fuentes primarias y secundarias, este estudio revela que los inversionistas extranjeros y los turistas internacionales dominan principalmente la industria del turismo en Livingstone. El dominio del sector por parte de inversionistas extranjeros ha resultado en el desarrollo de un paradigma de dependencia de la actividad turística para contribuir significativamente al desarrollo socioeconómico de la ciudad de Livingstone. A pesar de ser acreditado como un sector importante que contribuye al desarrollo socioeconómico y al alivio de la pobreza, el enfoque del paradigma de dependencia del desarrollo turístico en Livingstone ha conducido a vínculos más débiles con la economía doméstica, lo que ha tenido un impacto mínimo en el crecimiento económico general de la ciudad. Además, el turismo en Livingstone se ha vuelto poco competitivo desde una perspectiva comercial debido al dominio de la propiedad extranjera de las principales empresas turísticas que han creado carteles y oligopolios en el negocio, creando así barreras para que las empresas locales compitan efectivamente. Debido a su naturaleza, el sector turístico en Livingstone no se puede declarar como sostenible. Para abordar los problemas del turismo de enclave y promover un desarrollo turístico más inclusivo y beneficioso en Livingstone y en otros destinos turísticos de países en desarrollo, es necesario adoptar políticas y estrategias que garanticen la plena participación de las comunidades locales y un retorno doméstico de las significativas ganancias del turismo. Las estrategias también deben garantizar que el desarrollo turístico tenga fuertes vínculos con el resto de actividades socioeconómicas locales.

Comparing enclave tourism's socioeconomic impacts: A dependency theory approach to three state-planned resorts in Mexico

Abstract Based on a dependency theory approach, this study examined enclave tourism's socioeconomic impacts. A survey assessing residents’ perceptions of the economic and social impacts of tourism was conducted in three state-planned destinations in Mexico. A review of the literature revealed that enclave tourism has been largely criticised as an ineffective socioeconomic development strategy on a macro level. However, the empirical evidence obtained from the survey showed that tourism brings significant benefits on a micro or personal level: a phenomenon clearly recognised by locals. At the same time, from a dependency theory perspective, the results indicate that enclave tourism reinforces unequal power relationships between state-planned resorts and locals. The associated socioeconomic costs are shaped by this type of tourism development and by the locals’ economic dependence on it. Unlike previous research, this study contributes a new application of the dependency paradigm to understand more fully tourism's socioeconomic impacts on a micro rather than on a macro level.

Enclavic tourism spaces: territorialization and bordering in tourism destination development and planning

ABSTRACTEnclave tourism is a growing field of research. In general, tourism enclaves are seen as products of global capitalism and a non-locally-driven neoliberal market economy. Enclaves also manifest certain kinds of tourism planning and development modes in destination societies. The enclaves are exclusively planned spaces that usually contain the vast majority of facilities and services needed for tourists who have limited possibilities or desire to leave the enclave. At the same time, the locals' access to these spaces can be limited or otherwise controlled. Therefore, there are always power issues and processes of inequalities and uneven development involved, which calls for a further understanding of enclaves and their evolution and governance in tourism planning and development. This paper aims to discuss and synthesize the conceptual idea of enclaves in tourism and get an overview of some of the key theoretical perspectives on how enclavic spaces are produced, bordered, and governed in contemporary tourism planning and development. It is concluded that in critical situations the enclave tourism spaces with all-inclusive products can turn out to be all-exclusive for local communities in development. To understand the nature and development of enclave tourism and to guide their transformation in more sustainable directions, further research on policy and governance aspects of enclave tourism is needed.

Stereotypes and perceived solidarity in ethnic enclave tourism

ABSTRACTThis study considers how ethnic attitudes or stereotypes held by Japanese residents (as the majority ethnic group) of Brazilian residents (as the minority ethnic group) factor into the former’s perceived emotional solidarity with the latter. The aim of this work is to (1) initially assess the factor structure of the Ethnic Attitude Scale (EAS) and Emotional Solidarity Scale (ESS) and (2) to determine if underlying factors of the EAS serve to explain factors of the ESS. Following a multistage sampling scheme, 456 Japanese households within Oizumi completed an on-site, self-administered questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analyses of the EAS and ESS revealed consistent two- and three-factor structures with extant findings in the literature. Japanese residents tended to indicate they perceived Brazilian residents slightly favorably on items from each of the EAS factors (i.e. character and intelligence and social evaluation), while responding with ambivalence to items within the ESS factors (i.e. welcoming nature, emotional closeness, and sympathetic understanding). Structural paths (in five of six scenarios) revealed that EAS factors explained between 27% and 59% of the variance in the ESS factors. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed at the close of the paper.

Enclave tourism versus agritourism: the economic debate

The approaches to tourism development vary in different settings. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the conversation on the relative economic advantages of enclave and agritourism in a small island context. This study explicitly discusses these two forms of tourism in the island of Mauritius where tourism is a key pillar of the local economy. This study uses a novel format where stakeholder perspectives are reviewed based on a simulated debate between two sets of advocates. The debate arguments rely on a grounded methodology where in-depth interviews were conducted to gather the opinions of three substantial groups of stakeholders: notably, government officials, business interests and local community members. The multi-faceted arguments are built on the identified local concerns and perspectives and provide a forum for the voices of diverse participants from the tourism world of Mauritius. The format offers a rich, realistic set of arguments exploring the economic merits of both forms of tourism in a specific setting. Five main themes influence the economic support for tourism development: certainty of tourism income, scale of tourism development, employment, regional disparity and the challenge of change.

Perceptions of the ‘Other’ Residents: Implications for Attitudes of Tourism Development Focused on the Minority Ethnic Group

ABSTRACTThis study utilizes the Emotional Solidarity Scale (ESS) to examine the relationship between ethnic majority (Japanese) and minority (Brazilian) residents living in Oizumi, Japan. Results revealed significant differences in nine of the 10 ESS items. Resulting ESS factors from confirmatory factor analysis were then found to predict six of the eight models among Japanese residents (versus only two among Brazilian residents) which explained perceptions of tourism focused on Brazilian culture. Results suggest emotional solidarity among disparate ethnic groups living in the community to be a key construct to consider when investigating residents’ support for ethnic enclave tourism.

Boundary-work and sustainability in tourism enclaves

Tourists, workers, and business owners from diverse cultural backgrounds and social positions meet at tourism enclaves. Yet, the spatial layout of most enclaves encourages segregation instead of celebrating and benefiting from this diversity. This paper examines the genesis of enclave tourism boundaries. It proposes boundary-work as a sustainability practice to work out segregating propensities, and transform exclusionary boundaries or make them more permeable. Life story interviews in a Mexican Caribbean enclave revealed segregation's appalling consequences for workers, implicit costs for business owners, and the personal involvement of tourism actors in historical struggles over boundaries. This analysis constitutes a first step to untangle exclusionary propensities and render tourism boundaries more workable from a sustainability governance perspective. The paper explains the need for sustainable tourism research that identifies opportunities to: (1) address traumatic experiences born of discriminatory practices, (2) turn adversarial emotions between workers and business owners into productive collaborations across boundaries, and (3) challenge power asymmetries by providing tourism actors with knowledge about the physical, symbolic, and imaginary dimensions of boundaries. It concludes that the influence of any individual agent is profoundly limited; the transformation of long-standing boundaries demands a deliberate reformulation of sustainable tourism as a multi-dimensional decolonizing force.

Local perceptions of the relative contributions of enclave tourism and agritourism to community well-being: The case of Mauritius

Abstract To date, limited attention has been paid to the contribution of tourism to the well-being of island residents in general and to whether such well-being varies according to the nature of tourism development in particular. Specifically, island tourism is frequently manifested in resort-based enclave development, a form of tourism that is often criticised for its assumed limited benefits to the wider community. As a consequence, alternative approaches such as agritourism, are increasingly proposed as a means of enhancing community development and well-being, yet the relative merits of enclave and agritourism have not been explored within an island tourism context. This paper addresses this notable gap in the literature. Drawing on a questionnaire-based survey in Mauritius, it considers and compares the perceptions of local people of the extent to which enclave tourism and agritourism contribute to their well-being. The results reveal that both types of tourism development contribute both positively and negatively to community well-being although enclave tourism is perceived to have fewer positive outcomes. On the one hand, enclave tourism provides valuable cultural opportunities but damages the environment, restricts entrepreneurship and favours local elites; on the other hand, agritourism, although not yet well-established in Mauritius, is perceived to positively enhance the cultural and social spheres of community life whilst supporting entrepreneurship.

Tourism development in the Dominican Republic: An examination of the economic impact to coastal households

Coastal tourism projects are promoted in the Dominican Republic as national-level economic development initiatives that will create jobs for local residents, subsequently benefiting the households in these communities. However, the economic benefits of tourism can be severely weakened as a result of the neoliberal economic policies that guide such projects. Like other economically developing countries—particularly small island nations—the Dominican Republic embraced neoliberal policies that have ultimately reshaped the country’s economic, political, cultural, and physical landscape. As a result, transnational companies, foreign investors, and large-scale enclave tourism projects are the dominant form of tourism development in the Dominican Republic. Though companies’ revenue and profit data are not available for analysis of economic leakage, households can be investigated to understand the level of economic benefits obtained by residents of the local communities. Toward this end, 360 household surveys were collected to examine household income and material assets across 12 coastal communities in three regions of the Dominican Republic. Because of the noted differences in previous development literature, gender of the head of households and whether the household was dependent on income from tourism employment were compared across these measures after adjusting for regional differences. Results indicate that the gender of the head of the household and tourism dependency positively predicted household income, while only gender of the head of the household predicted material assets.

Stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism

Using a grounded theory approach, this study investigates stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism in the island of Mauritius. In-depth interviews with tourism stakeholders were conducted and data were analyzed using the principles of grounded theory. Seven subthemes emerged from the analysis and these were categorized into two main themes: enclave tourism as an agent of empowerment/improvement and enclave tourism as a force of sociocultural destruction/denial of freedom. The themes suggest that stakeholders’ views are nuanced and often contradictory. In line with the principles of grounded theory, a conceptual framework explaining stakeholders’ views of enclave tourism is developed. The findings are discussed with existing literature and similarities and contradictions are noted. Unlike what is usually claimed by researchers and scholars, enclave tourism development results in some environmental and socioeconomic benefits, particularly with respect to sustainable hotel operations, empowerment of local community and women, and entrepreneurial opportunities.

The beach enclave: A landscape of power

This paper analyses the beach enclave resort of Senegambia in The Gambia as a landscape of power through the physical structure and the power relationships between different stakeholders reinforced by strict legislative and security measures. Beach enclaves are manifested as landscapes which protect tourists rather than national landscapes with leisure access and business opportunities for all. Building on a socio-spatial analysis of power and landscape, power relations in beach enclaves are discussed. Cultural and economic representations of the enclave product in a Less Economically Developed Country context are imbued with positive and negative socio-economic and cultural impacts. Post-structuralism and Structure and Agency are applied to further understand where marginality results from enclave tourism. The paper demonstrates a gap in the tourism literature and the need for further research on how places of marginality in tourist destinations are socially constructed by the power of individuals and organisations.

Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impact in emerging destinations

This study explores the socio-economic implications of enclave tourism in emerging destinations. The focus is on Zanzibar. The specific objectives are to estimate the gross tourist expenditure; to analyze the tourist expenditure in relation to the tourist demographic characteristics; and to find out whether there is any statistical difference between the expenditure caused by the type of the chosen tour mode. A specific visitor-survey was conducted at the Zanzibar Airport during the summer of 2009. Then, the flow of the tourist expenditure was estimated using aggregate-case summaries while the equality of the mean was analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance. Analysis of expenditure between the different categories of the tours reveals that the average daily expenditure spent by the enclave tourist was well below that made by the other types of contracts. There is statistical evidence to suggest that the differences were due to the chosen tour mode, as the type of tour has a significant effect on the average daily expenditure per tourist at the destination. The study recommends calculated strategies for linking the tourism industry with the local people for pro-poor tourism promotion.

Revisiting Botswana's High-Value, Low-Volume Tourism

Botswana has adopted a high-value, low-volume tourism strategy in a bid to minimize negative environmental impacts on pristine wildlife areas while maximizing socioeconomic benefits. This implies sustainable development/tourism. While conservation of biological diversity appears to be on course, visitation and hence revenue has remained stunted in most parks and reserves. Moreover, the high-value, low-volume tourism strategy appears to have contributed towards enclave tourism, with a large foreign ownership of tour operator companies and repatriation of profits from Botswana. This compromises yet another principle of sustainability, social equity. It would appear that the high-value, low-volume tourism strategy is antisustainability and hence not suitable for a developing country like Botswana with a large rural population that is still highly dependent on natural resources. This article utilizes secondary data to evaluate the effectiveness of the high-value, low-volume strategy in achieving sustainable tourism development in Botswana.

Progress in Enclave Tourism Study of Overseas: A Literature Review

Abstract In response to the “isolated island” phenomenon emerging from the development of tourist resorts in China, this paper reviews the study of enclave tourism overseas, which has similar features to the resort “island”. Based on the literatures related to enclave tourism from Tourism Management and Annals of Tourism Research, this paper reviews the study of enclave tourism from the following aspects: definition discussion, theories used, causation of enclaves, characteristics and impacts of enclave tourism. The understanding of the overseas researches on enclave tourism would provide instructions for the study on the problems of Chinese resorts, such as enclavity and “island effects”, and suggest measures for the sustainable development of resorts in China. This paper is divided into three sections. Section 1 briefly introduces the development of enclave tourism in developing countries and the outline of enclave tourism study. Section 2 elaborates on the contents of enclave tourism research and gives...

The Socio-cultural Impacts of Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

The objective of this article is to assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This paper largely relied on the research work and reports by the author in the Okavango Delta from 1998 to 2004. In all instances, both primary and secondary data sources were used. However, much of the paper is based on the results of a survey carried out between April 2001 and July 2002. Findings indicate that tourism development in the Okavango Delta has both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts. Some of the positive socio-cultural impacts include income generation and employment opportunities from both community-based tourism projects and safari companies, infrastructure development such as airport and airstrips, tarred roads, hotels, lodges and camps, the improvement of social services such as banking, health, telecommunications and access to electricity. The negative socio-cultural impacts include enclave tourism, racism, relocation of traditional communities, breaking up of the traditional family structure, increase in crime, prostitution, the adoption of the Western safari style of dressing and a traditionally unacceptable ‘vulgar’ language by young people. This article argues that tourism needs to be sensitive to local cultural norms and beliefs for it to be accepted by local people and promote sustainable development. This is possible if all the stakeholders (government, operators and local people) collaborate in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. This can minimise the negative cultural impacts and instead promote the positive.