Palm Empty Fruit Bunch Research Articles

Microbial conversion of lignin rich biomass hydrolysates to medium chain length polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA) using Pseudomonas putida KT2440

As world moves toward increasing number of products being produced from renewable lignocellulosic agricultural and forest residues, the major classes of products that will shift to greener routes on priority are energy, fuels, and materials in that order. In materials segment, polyhydroxyalkanoates are an emerging class of biopolyesters with several potential industrial uses. The present work investigates medium chain length polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA) producing capabilities of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 from a mixture of compounds produced from lignocellulosic biomass deconstruction. The hydrolysates obtained from nitric acid pretreatment of lignin rich cotton stalk (CS) and palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) were used as substrates for production of mcl-PHA. Presence of 3-hydroxydecanoate and 3-hydroxyocytanoate observed on GC-MS confirmed PHA accumulation in the cells. PHA accumulation was estimated between 20% and 35% of cell dry weight when grown on both model substrates as well as biomass hydrolysates. PHA titers obtained on hydrolysates of CS and EFB were 0.24 g/L and 0.21 g/L, respectively.

Synthesis and Characterization of Metal Sulfates Loaded Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (PEFB) for Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel has been globally accepted as a green substitute for diesel fuel. However, the insecurity of food raised with the application of edible sources in biodiesel production has caused much debate. The feasible alternative technique is the use of inedible and low-grade sources such as palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). In this work, the production of biodiesel (FAME) from PFAD using solid acid catalysts (SACs) derived from palm empty fruit bunch (PEFB) is investigated. The SACs were synthesized through impregnation of different metal sulfate precursors, i.e. ferrous sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O), copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O), and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO4.7H2O) over PEFB. SEM-EDX observations found that impregnation and then calcination resulted in attachment of sulfur (S) and improved surface porosity. FT-IR analysis showed that there were distinct interactions between metal sulfates and PEFB. XRD characterization showed that the prepared catalysts have a crystalline structure. Besides, the catalytic activity of the SACs was closely associated with their acid densities measured by the titration method. Fe-PEFB catalyst showed the highest acid density (2.44 mmol/g) among the catalysts studied. To study the effect of process parameters on FFA conversion (%), optimization of methanol: PFAD molar ratio, catalyst dosage, reaction temperature, and reaction time was conducted. Maximum FFA conversion of 89.1% was obtained over Fe-PEFB while Cu-PEFB and Mg-PEFB achieved an FFA conversion of 63 and 56.5%, respectively, under the optimum reaction conditions. Thus, the present study offers a sustainable and environmentally benign method for biodiesel production.

Comparative study of polyphenolic compound extraction from empty palm fruit bunches and sugarcane pulp

Polyphenolic compounds have many benefits, one of which being their efficacy as antioxidants. They can be extracted from various parts of plants and from agricultural waste. In this research, sugarcane pulp, and empty palm fruit bunches from the palm oil production were investigated as potential raw materials. This study aims to determine solvents and easy-to-perform extraction methods that show the highest effectivity in regards to total phenolic and flavonoid yield and the correlated antioxidant activity. Extraction methods comprised maceration, Soxhlet extraction, and ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE); solvents that were investigated included water, 70% methanol and 70% ethanol. The antioxidant activity was measured by the DPPH (diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method and FRAP (Ferric Reduction Ability of Plasma) method. Based on the amount of polyphenol compounds as well as the antioxidant activity, the experiments showed that Soxhlet extraction with 70% methanol as solvent worked best for palm bunch waste and sugar cane pulp, resulted in about two times higher values for total phenolic content, flavonoid content and FRAP antioxidant activity as well as extract mass (yield) compared to the results from other extraction methods or solvents used in this experiment. The antioxidant activity of the extracts as measured by DPPH method seemed also to be promising, although the trend among solvent and extraction method was rather inconclusive.

The functionalization of pyrolyzed palm empty fruit bunches-based membranes adsorbent by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy

Membranes adsorbent are successfully prepared derived from palm empty fruit bunches (PEFB) which pyrolyzed by furnace as physical activation. The PEFB membrane adsorbent was activated to develop porous structures and surface area which able to be applied for gas separation. The aims of this study are to fabricated the pyrolyzed PEFB-based membrane adsorbent with different loading of PEFB mass to identify the surface organic functional groups of the PEFB membrane adsorbent. Fabrication of this membrane adsorbent was conducted into three steps, i.e. (1) pre-treated PEFB materials; (2) pyrolyzed the PEFB adsorbent at 500°C; and (3) PEFB membrane adsorbent fabrication by mixed both of PVA and PEG polymers into PEFB adsorbent with varied mass (15-17.5 grams). The functionalization of this membrane adsorbents was analysed by Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) spectra. The result shows the three variations of the PEFB membrane adsorbents present the surface oxygen, functional group. The effect of PEFB mass loading to the carbon pores formation of PEFB membrane adsorbent was exhibited by the escalating of C-H and C-O groups. The membrane adsorbent by adding 17.5 grams of PEFB mass indicating the highest peak of hydroxyl C-O at wavenumber 1070 cm−1. It demonstrates that membrane adsorbent with high PEFB mass loading and physic activation by pyrolyzing is great to tailoring the membrane adsorbent structure properties which capable to be applied for gas separation, especially for biogas upgrading.

A review of oil palm fruit fiber reinforced composites

Oil palm fibers have been developed as reinforcement in the composite. These fibers can be produced from fruit, trunk, and frond of oil palm. In this review, the oil palm fruit fiber for reinforcing composite was focused. Oil palm fruit fibers consist of empty fruit bunch (EFB) and mesocarp fruit (MF) fibers. The chemical composition and characteristics of oil palm fruit fiber are described. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the composite are reported to be related to the surface treatment of EFB and MF fibers. Applications of such fiber composite are included in this review. From some researches, the surface treatment methods for MF and EFB fibers as reinforcement composite was conducted with using alkali, silane, acryilic acid, acetic anhydride, hydogen peroxide, microwave, and superheated steam. The effect of these surface treatments on oil palm EFB and MF fibers displayed the improvement of the mechanical properties (tensile, flexural and impact strengths) of the composite due to enhance the interface adhesion between fiber and matrix after treatment of fibers.

Techno-economic, environmental, and heat integration of palm empty fruit bunch upgrading for power generation

The palm empty fruit bunch (PEFB) is a residue from oil pressing. As a renewable energy source, it is expected to achieve high-yield bio-oils, low gas content, and low char content. In this work, a comprehensive pyrolysis process model, bio-oil upgrading plant, and electric power generation were simulated simultaneously. This work applied the pyrolysis kinetic reaction model at 500 °C based on 1,000 tons/day of PEFB. The results showed that suitable validation with the existing published work, in that 1 kg/s of PEFB could produce 0.21 kg/s of gas, 0.67 kg/s of bio-oil, and 0.11 kg/s char. Implementing a heat exchanger network (HEN) improves the minimum capital cost implication and maximum heat recovery compared to the non-heat exchanger network (non-HEN) design. Therefore, HEN implementation shows a cost reduction of 57.46%, with a feasibility study performed by estimating the equipment size and cost. The economic assumptions are estimated to be 10% of the annual discount rate for 20 years. According to an economic analysis of the HEN, the net present value, internal rate of return and payback duration are $20,086,830.26, 28.40%, and 5.62 years, respectively. In comparison, the non-HEN design shows $12,966,333.26, 27.55%, and 5.77 years, respectively. Furthermore, the environmental-economic analysis shows that the non-HEN design and HEN design indicate global warming at midpoints of 281,677 and 263,330-ton carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2 eq.)/year. The non-HEN design has a higher midpoint and endpoint than the HEN design.

Lignin-Derived Syringol and Acetosyringone from Palm Bunch Using Heterogeneous Oxidative Depolymerization over Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts under Microwave Heating.

Biomass valorization to building block chemicals in food and pharmaceutical industries has tremendously gained attention. To produce monophenolic compounds from palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), EFB was subjected to alkaline hydrothermal extraction using NaOH or K2CO3 as a promotor. Subsequently, EFB-derived lignin was subjected to an oxidative depolymerization using Cu(II) and Fe(III) mixed metal oxides catalyst supported on γ-Al2O3 or SiO2 as the catalyst in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. The highest percentage of total phenolic compounds of 63.87 wt% was obtained from microwave-induced oxidative degradation of K2CO3 extracted lignin catalyzed by Cu-Fe/SiO2 catalyst. Main products from the aforementioned condition included 27.29 wt% of 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol, 19.21 wt% of syringol, 9.36 wt% of acetosyringone, 3.69 wt% of acetovanillone, 2.16 wt% of syringaldehyde, and 2.16 wt% of vanillin. Although the total phenolic compound from Cu-Fe/Al2O3 catalyst was lower (49.52 wt%) compared with that from Cu-Fe/SiO2 catalyst (63.87 wt%), Cu-Fe/Al2O3 catalyst provided the greater selectivity of main two value-added products, syringol and acetosyrigone, at 54.64% and 23.65%, respectively (78.29% total selectivity of two products) from the NaOH extracted lignin. The findings suggested a promising method for syringol and acetosyringone production from the oxidative heterogeneous lignin depolymerization under low power intensity microwave heating within a short reaction time of 30 min.

Physicochemical Properties of Membrane Adsorber from Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (PEFB) by Acid Activation.

A membrane adsorbent was successfully made from palm empty fruit bunches (PEFB), which was pyrolysed as physical activation. The effect of adding the impact of one-step catalyst (hydrochloric acid) and differences in the concentration on the characteristics and structure and deconvolution are investigated in this study. The results of the research have been successfully created and characterised using Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) isotherm, and membrane morphology using SEM test. Membrane performance testing was carried out using a biogas flame test. The adsorber membrane was made by adding NH4Cl as a cationic surfactant, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), and polyethylene glycol (PEG) with a ratio of 1:3. The FTIR test has a functional group: O-H; C-H stretch; C=C-C; Arly O-Strech; C-O. Adsorbent membrane with the addition of 0.5 M HCl catalyst had the highest ratio of O-H/C=C-C relative area of 4.33. The diffractogram shows an amorphous structure with (002) and (100) graph planes. Adsorber membrane with a concentration of 1.5 M HCl has formed amorphous structured fibre. The adsorber membrane with a concentration of 0.5 HCl activator gave a surface area of 0.5345 m2 g−1 and a pore volume of 0.000983 cm3 g−1.

Study of Bio-Waste Anaerobic Digestion and its Membrane Purification Technologies in Oversea: I. Malaysian Biogas Scale-up Case

The palm oil mill industry in Malaysian generates 100 million ton of palm oil mill effluent (POME) and EFB (empty fruit bunch) as byproducts annually. This study identified the location, capacity and technology of biogas refinery plants for the production of biogas from the byproducts of the Malaysian palm oil mill plant. This study investigated the production of biogas via the anaerobic co-digestion of EFB under mesophilic anaerobic condition. The results revealed that subjecting EFB to an alkaline pretreatment method enabled a high-concentration methane yield. The raw biogas obtained from the anaerobic co-digestion of POME and EFB at 1.013 bar contained 61% CH₄, 33.5% CO₂ and 180 ppm H₂S and was produced at rate of 51 - 68㎥/h. The utilization of biomethane as a bio-CNG gas has been unexplored: hence, this study investigated the purification of POME biogas into bio-CNG gas. The pretreatment of raw biogas using chelate-iron (EDTA-iron solution) process, which is the most promising technique for the removal of 99% H₂S, was employed in this study. A pilot-scale separation plant with a capacity of 20㎥/hr that utilize cellulosic spiral wound membrane (MTR, USA) for upgrading biogas to CNG fuel quality was constructed and operated at the biogas plant. The result contained 99.1% CH₄, 1.8% CO₂, 0.004% H₂O and 0.9 ppm H₂S. These results indicate that the energy contents of biogas can be significantly enhanced by upgrading it to CNG fuel.

Separation and catalytic depolymerization of empty palm fruit bunch lignin

Lignin is a heterogeneous and complex polymer and a potential renewable source of aromatic compounds as precursors to many industrially useful products. Microbial biotransformations for lignin valorization are reported but require not only its separation from biomass matrix but also breakdown into its monomeric components. Abundantly available empty palm fruit bunch was used as the lignin-rich biomass to process it to obtain a mixture of lignin-derived monomeric aliphatic and aromatic compounds. A two-step acid-alkali treatment was deployed to extract lignin and its breakdown into smaller fragments. Dilute nitric acid treatment could extract 80% of the lignin and the hydrolysate was fractionated through a series of nanofiltration membranes. The residual polymeric lignin obtained after monomer separation was catalytically depolymerized using Cu/Al2O3 under optimized conditions i.e., 180 °C, 7 MPa, 60 min, methanol: water ratio as 1:1 to give 80% conversion. Lignin mixture at every step was analyzed by GC-MS and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The scheme resulted in 37% of the overall lignin being obtained as monomers.

Organic material selection for soil amendment on mine reclamation with analytic hierarchy process

Soil quality is a frequent problem hindering mine reclamation success. Much research conducted on this problem proposed the application of organic material for soil amendment. However, most of the soil amendment research only focused on the usability of organic material, such as providing nutrients, improving soil properties, and adsorbing hazardous elements. Considering that reclamation is a complex activity, we propose a comprehensive assessment of both technical and managerial aspects on the selection of organic material due to the distinctive properties of each organic material. This study aimed to assess the criteria that influence the organic material selection and determine the most suitable alternative of organic material in mine reclamation. The assessment was Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) with the expert choice concept. The criteria used in this study were availability, cost, usability, ease of application, and side effects. Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) compost, rice husk charcoal, cattle manure, and guano were selected. This study showed that availability was the principal factor, followed by usability, cost, ease of application, and side effects. The analysis also showed that the most suitable organic material was oil palm EFB compost with a global priority of 0.363, followed by rice husk charcoal (0.244), cattle manure (0.218), and guano (0.175).

Extraction of cellulose nanofibers from empty palm fruit bunches via mechanical defibrillation

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in finding alternative material to replace fossil-oil based product due to the environmental concern. Lignocellulosic biomass has emerged as the promising candidate due to its low-cost and sustainability. The objective of this work was to prepare cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) from empty palm fruit bunches (EPFB), which are the waste originating from palm oil industry. Cellulose fibers were first extracted from EPFB by chemical treatment, followed by mechanical disintegration using high-pressure homogenization. Fiber concentration and defibrillation time during mechanical treatment were studied to investigate their effects on the properties of produced nanofibers. The obtained micro- and nano-fibers were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA), Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Transmission electron microscope (TEM). The results indicated that non-cellulosic components were successfully removed by chemical treatment, as evidenced by the disappearance of lignin and hemicellulose related peaks in FTIR analysis, reduction of their content in chemical composition result, and increase in the thermal stability for purified fibers. Moreover, TEM images and diameter distribution analysis revealed that fiber concentration of 0.5%w/v provided the best diameter size uniformity with the nanofiber’s diameter ranged 6 nm to16 nm, as compared to higher fiber concentration.

Heat Quality Enhancement and Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction from Coal Burning by Combining Low-Ranked Coal with Biomass Waste as A Clean Energy Solution to Achieve Energy Security in Indonesia

Indonesia is the fifth largest coal producer in the world with coal reserves reaching 39.56 billion tonnes. Coal reserves of medium and high quality are expected to be exhausted in 2048, therefore it is necessary to utilize low-ranked coals. Low-ranked coals have a low heating value (<5,100 kcal/kg) and produce greater CO2 emissions compared to medium and high rank coals. One method to increase heating value and reduce CO2 emissions from low-ranked coals is through the Utilization of hybrid coal. Hybrid coal is low quality coal combined with biomass waste and has undergone a pyrolysis process together. The mixing and co-pyrolysis of low-ranked coal with biomass waste such as rice husk, empty palm fruit bunches, and rubber wood with a ratio of 7:3 is known to be able to increase the final product calorific value by 31.10–44.12% and reduce non-neutral CO2 emissions by 15.56–21.31%. The hybrid coal production process is highly prospective to be implemented in Indonesia, especially in Central Java, South Sumatra and South Kalimantan. The payback period from the hybrid coal industry with a production capacity range of 540 thousand to 4.5 million TPY can be achieved in 10–13 years with a net profit range of IDR 137 billion to IDR 493 billion per year and a net present value range of IDR 285 billion to IDR 1.1 trillion.

Preliminary Study of Microwave Irradiation Towards Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches Biomass

In this study, torrefaction via microwave irradiation was introduced towards oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) samples. The samples of 10 g was fed into the quartz type crucible inside the microwave with the power input limit to 385 W. Continous nitrogen up to 50 ml/min were induced and promoted the non oxidative atmosphere in the closed crucible. This proved the increased of energy properties as high 23.6 MJ/kg for torrefied samples comparable to raw 14.8 MJ/kg. On the result of proximate analysis, fixed carbon shows the increase trends whereby the volatile matter decreased. Torrefaction has been found to improve the energy properties of oil palm EFB biomass as a fuel.

Response Surface Methodology Optimization of Methylene Blue Removal by Activated Carbon Derived from Foxtail Palm Tree Empty Fruit Bunch

The release of dyes in form of wastewater causes serious environmental problems such as retards photosynthesis, inhibit growth of aquatic biota by blocking out sunlight and utilizing dissolved oxygen. In this study, activated carbon derived from foxtail palm (Wodyetia bifurcata) empty fruit bunch (EFB) was used as an adsorbent to remove methylene blue in aqueous solution. The preparation process of activated carbon consisted of H2SO4 impregnation followed by carbonization at 300ºC for 24 hours. The optimization adsorption process was carried out using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) via Box-Behnken design. Three important operating variables namely dye concentration, contact time and adsorbent dosage were studied. The optimum conditions obtained were 100 ppm of methylene blue, 13 h of contact time and 2 g of activated carbon with the highest percentage of methylene blue removal of 99.9%. Based on the study, activated carbon derived from foxtail palm EFB showed good potential as an adsorbing agent.

Bioh2, Heat and Power from Palm Empty Fruit Bunch via Pyrolysis-Autothermal Reforming: Plant Simulation, Experiments, and CO2 Mitigation

Empty fruit bunch, a significant by-product of the palm oil industry, represents a tremendous and hitherto neglected renewable energy resource for many countries in South East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The design and simulation of a plant producing pure hydrogen through autothermal reforming (ATR) of palm empty fruit bunch (PEFB) was carried out based on successful laboratory experiments of the core process. The bio-oil feed to the ATR stage was represented in the experiments and in the simulation by a surrogate bio-oil mixture of 11 organic compounds shown to be main constituents of PEFB oil from previous work, and whose combined elemental composition and volatility was determined to be as close as possible to that of the real PEFB bio-oil. The experiments confirmed that H2 yields close to equilibrium predictions were achievable using an in-house synthetised Rh-Al2O3 catalyst in a packed bed reactor. Initial sensitivity analysis on the plant revealed that feed molar steam to carbon ratio should not exceed 3 for the optimal design of the ATR hydrogen production plant. An overall plant efficiency of 39.4% was obtained for the initial design, this value was improved to 67.5% by applying pinch analysis to enhance the integration of heat in the design. The proposed design renders CO2 savings of about 0.56 kg per kg of raw PEFB processed. The proposed design and accompanying experimental studies together make a strong case on the possibility of polygeneration of H2, heat, and power from an otherwise discarded agricultural waste.

Using reactive distillation for upgrading bio-oil from co-pyrolysis of palm kernel shell and palm empty fruit bunches

Using reactive distillation for upgrading bio-oil from co-pyrolysis of palm kernel shell and palm empty fruit bunches

RESPONS PERTUMBUHAN DAN PRODUKSI DUA VARIETAS UBI JALAR TERHADAP PEMBERIAN BERBAGAI SUMBER KALIUM

The research was conducted at Tanjung Anom Subdistrict of Pancur Batu, Deli Serdang District of Medan, North Sumatera with an altitude of ± 25 meters above sea level from April until August 2017, using group randomized design with two factors, i.e : varieties (Beta 1 and Local Perbaungan) and sources of potassium (control, KCl, biochar, empty palm fruit bunch). The result showed that the treatment of two varieties had significant effect on tuber length parameters per sample, biomass weight per sample, tuber weight, and plant biomass weight, that the highest yield was obtained in Beta 1 treatment. The sources of potassium significantly affect all parameters of the study the interaction of the treatment of varieties and the provision of various types of potassium sources significantly affected all parameters, where the number of tubers and tuber weight per sample of treatment was highest in the treatment of Beta 1 varieties with KCl.

Synergistic production of highly active enzymatic cocktails from lignocellulosic palm wastes by sequential solid state-submerged fermentation and co-cultivation of different filamentous fungi

Lignocellulolytic enzymes were produced from industrial crop wastes, palm empty fruit bunches (EFB), through various fermentation modes and co-cultivation of different filamentous fungi. Among the fermentation modes and fungi tested, Aspergillus tubingensis TSIP9 produced enzymatic cocktails with the highest cellulase (89.6 ± 5.7 U/g-EFB) and xylanase (196.8 ± 3.6 U/g-EFB) activities through sequential solid-state and submerged fermentation (SoSF-SmF), while Trichoderma reesei QM 9414 showed the highest β-glucosidase (47.9 ± 0.9 U/g-EFB) activity through SmF. Interestingly, their co-cultivation in sequential SoSF-SmF significantly improved overall enzyme production possibly due to synergism of the enzymes produced by both strains and combined advantages of SoSF and SmF. After optimization and scale-up in bioreactor with helical impeller, the cellulase, xylanase and β-glucosidase activities were enhanced up to 374.8 ± 4.23 U/g-EFB (4.2 folds), 623.7 ± 4.59 U/g-EFB (3.2 folds) and 161.87 ± 1.74 U/g-EFB (3.4 folds), respectively. These enzymes are highly active and stable at pH 5–6 and temperature of 50–60 °C. These strategies could be viable options for effective and low-cost production of lignocellulolytic enzymes and further application in bioproduction and biorefinery.

Acoustic Performance Mixture of Natural Fibres of Oil Palm Frond (OPF) and Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)

The expansion of the oil palm industry has affected the environment and the poor handling of oil palm waste has greatly endangered the habitat surrounds it. The oil palm natural fibre waste can be put to good use and used as a sound absorber for its amazing acoustic properties. At the same time, the demand for natural fibre sound-absorbing panels is increasing due to its low-cost fabrication and its healthier than synthetic fibre. This research has studied the acoustic properties of mixing Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) and Oil Palm Frond (OPF) in a thickness of 12 mm, 14 mm, 16 mm, and 18 mm. The fibreboard has been fabricated at a density of 120 kg/m3. The Sound Absorption Coefficient, SAC, and morphologies of all the samples were examined using the Impedance Tube Method (ITM) and Scanning Electron Microscope, (SEM). The sample’s SAC value increased with thickness. It is noteworthy that this combination percentage of natural fibres of EFB and OPF show good acoustic performance where the SAC values above 0.8 at wide frequency 3000 - 6400 Hz. Sample thickness 14 mm, 18 mm achieved unity (1.0) at frequency 4000 - 5500 Hz. In addition, all the samples were found to exceed 90 % of the absorption rate in the range of 4500 - 6400 Hz. The morphology content of EFB and OPF helps in enhancing the absorption rate.