Employment Inequality Research Articles

The intricacy of structural racism measurement: A pilot development of a latent-class multidimensional measure

BackgroundStructural racism is a complex system of inequities working in tandem to cause poor health for communities of color, especially for Black people. However, the multidimensional nature of structural racism is not captured by existing measures used by population health scholars to study health inequities. Multidimensional measures can be made using complex analytical techniques. Whether or not the multidimensional measure of structural racism provides more insight than the existing unidimensional measures is unknown.MethodsWe derived measures of Black-White residential segregation, inequities in education, employment, income, and homeownership, evaluated for 2,338 Public Use Microdata Areas (PUMAs) in the United States (US), and consolidated them into a multidimensional measure of structural racism using a latent class model. We compared the median COVID-19 vaccination rates observed across 54 New York City (NYC) PUMAs by levels (high/low) of structural racism and the multidimensional class using the Kruskal-Wallis test. This study was conducted in March 2021.FindingsOur latent class model identified three structural racism classes in the US, all of which can be found in NYC. We observed intricate interactions between the five dimensions of structural racism of interest that cannot be simply classified as “high” (i.e., high on all dimensions of structural racism), “medium,” or “low.” Compared to Class A PUMAs with the median rate of two-dose completion of 6·9%, significantly lower rates were observed for Class B PUMAs (5·5%, p = 0·04) and Class C PUMAs (5·2%, p = 0·01). When the vaccination rates were evaluated based on each dimension of structural racism, significant differences were observed between PUMAs with high and low Black-White income inequity only (7·2% vs. 5·3%, p = 0·001).InterpretationOur analysis suggests that measuring structural racism as a multidimensional determinant of health provides additional insight into the mechanisms underlying population health inequity vis-à-vis using multiple unidimensional measures without capturing their joint effects.FundingThis project is funded by the Robert J. Jones Urban Research and Outreach-Engagement Center, University of Minnesota. Additional support is provided by the Minnesota Population Center, which is funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Grant P2C HD041023).

Rising Inequality in Mothers' Employment Statuses: The Role of Intergenerational Transmission.

During the late twentieth century, U.S. mothers' propensities to hold full-time jobs became increasingly unequal across the distribution of socioeconomic status (SES). Consequently, daughters in high-SES households became more likely to be raised by working mothers than daughters in low-SES households. To what extent did this unequal exposure further shape maternal employment inequality in the twenty-first century-when these daughters had grown into adults and begun to raise their own children? Leveraging the genealogical structure of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, this article estimates intergenerational employment coefficients on a sample of late twentieth century mothers and their daughters. It documents a much stronger intergenerational relationship in high-SES families than in low-SES families. Supplementary analyses reveal that being raised by a working mother significantly reduces the motherhood employment penalty among high-SES women but not among low-SES women. Unequal rates of mother-daughter employment transmission by SES can account for 36% of growing inequality in maternal employment across SES groups, observed in the Current Population Survey, between 1999 and 2016. These findings indicate that family-level transmission processes magnify the effects of structural forces on maternal employment inequality.

Wage inequality and employment composition in Brazil: a VEC estimation for the period 2004-2019

Abstract During the first decade of the 21st century, the Brazilian economy stood out by conciliating growth with income inequality reductions. To better understand this growth process, I propose to study the dynamics of Brazil’s employment and wage inequality structure based on the hypothesis that there was a cumulative circular movement in which the reduction of income inequality, changes in the composition of the employment and growth reinforced each other. By econometrically testing the existence of this cumulative mechanism for Brazil for the years 2004-2019, I find that the employment composition and wage inequality are mutually related. The results highlight existing research gaps in understanding the relations between wage inequality and employment composition and avenues for further research.

Linguistic occupation segregation along the U.S.–Mexico border: using the index of dissimilarity to measure inequality in employment among monolingual speakers and Spanish–English bilinguals

Abstract The U.S.–Mexico border is a Latina/o concentrated region and Spanish–English bilingual society. While there are some indications of an economic advantage associated with Spanish–English bilingualism in regions with over-representations of Spanish-origin speakers, the degree of occupational linguistic segregation in such ethno-linguistic context is unknown. Based on data from the American Community Survey (ACS) Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) for 2018, this study calculates the occupational dissimilarity index (D) among monolingual-Spanish speakers, Spanish–English bilinguals, and monolingual-English speakers for cities located along the Texas–Mexico border and in the Houston metropolis. Findings show that the highest occupational segregation is found between monolingual-Spanish speakers and both monolingual-English and Spanish–English bilinguals. This indicates that the monolingual-Spanish workforce is occupationally segregated from those with fluent command of English. The lowest occupation dissimilarity indices are between Spanish–English bilinguals and monolingual-English speakers, indicating that these groups are approaching similar occupational placements. I conclude by highlighting an occupational advantage to Spanish–English bilingualism, but only in border cities characterised by concentrations of Spanish-origin speakers. In the non-border city of Houston, being Spanish–English bilingual is not enough to experience occupational upward mobility.

Getting Back on Their Feet: Women in Sport and Exercise Academic Network Virtual Conference, Sept 7–8, 2020

Getting Back on Their Feet: Women in Sport and Exercise Academic Network Virtual Conference, Sept 7–8, 2020

Ageing and vision loss: looking to the future

Ageing and vision loss: looking to the future

Internships and the graduate labour market: how upper-middle-class students ‘get ahead’

Internships have become an important means to enhance career prospects in an increasingly congested graduate labour market. This article used positional conflict theory to explore how university students from different social class backgrounds experience internships, and the implications for inequalities in post-graduation employment. One-hundred interviews were conducted with final-year undergraduates from three different class fractions at a Russell Group university (n = 50) and a Post-1992 university (n = 50) in England. This research design enabled the exploration of differences between the most socio-economically privileged students and others, independent of university attended. The findings demonstrated how upper-middle-class students at both universities were better able to mobilise family resources to progressively ‘stack’ multiple and ‘high-status’ internships, resultantly pulling away from their peers in preparing for the graduate labour market. It is argued that internships have emerged as a class strategy to ‘get ahead’ beyond the well-established mechanisms of elite universities and prestigious fields of study.

Estimating disability prevalence and disability-related inequalities: Does the choice of measure matter?

Different measures for quantifying the percentage of people with a disability in surveys result in diverging estimates of prevalence and disability-related inequalities. Thus understanding the implications of using different disability measures is of vital policy importance. This study is the first to investigate the within-survey variation in disability prevalence based on two internationally recognized measures: the Washington Group Short Set (WGSS) and the Global Activity Limitation Indicator (GALI). It is also the first to examine the disability-related inequality in voter turnout, based on official validated voter records. We use data on 11,308 25-54-year-old respondents from the 2016 wave of the Survey of Health, Impairment and Living Conditions in Denmark (SHILD) to estimate the disability prevalence based on the WGSS and the GALI. Moreover, we investigate health characteristics of individuals with a disability according to the two measures and inequalities in two central social policy success parameters: voter turnout and employment. The WGSS estimates higher disability prevalence (10.6%) than the GALI (5.5%). Only 2.5% of the sample are in both groups, implying that largely, different individuals are defined as having a disability depending on which measure is used. The health profiles of the two groups also differ, as people with a GALI-defined disability are significantly more likely to report a severe mental illness or a major physical health problem. The GALI estimates indicate larger inequalities between people with and without a disability than the WGSS for the probability of being employed, whereas there are no significant differences for voter turnout. The choice of disability measure strongly influences within-survey estimates of disability prevalence, the health profile of the defined groups, and inequalities in outcomes. The WGSS underrepresents the number of people suffering from severe mental illness. Estimated inequalities in employment are larger for the GALI than for the WGSS.

Inequities in Employment by Race, Ethnicity, and Sector During COVID-19.

ObjectiveTo determine whether people of Color experienced disparate levels of employment loss in frontline versus non-frontline occupations during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsThe Bureau of Labor Statistics Current Population Survey data was analyzed in a cross-sectional study. Percent change in number employed was tabulated quarterly for groups by race and ethnicity (Black or African American, Asian American, or Hispanic or Latinx compared to White or non-Hispanic or Latinx) and frontline occupation status between January 1 and June 30, 2020. Two-tailed two-sample tests of proportions were used to compare groups statistically.ResultsMore dramatic declines in number employed occurred in the Black or African American, Asian American, and Hispanic or Latinx groups. When stratified by sector, greater declines were noted in the Hispanic or Latinx and Asian American frontline, and Black or African American non-frontline groups when compared to the referent groups.ConclusionsStructural racism has further affected people of Color through differential employment loss during the onset of the pandemic, both overall and by sector. However, the effect of sector varies dramatically across racial and ethnic groups.Policy ImplicationsBecause employment is an important social determinant of health and a potential risk factor for contracting COVID-19, these trends may provide important context for the prioritization of PPE and immunizations, as well as the provision of stable health insurance and income support for vulnerable workers.

The impact of celebrity influence and national media coverage on users of an alcohol reduction app: a natural experiment

BackgroundSmartphone apps are increasingly used for health-related behaviour change and people discover apps through different sources. However, it is unclear whether users differ by mode of app discovery. Drink Less is an alcohol reduction app that received national media coverage in the UK caused by celebrity influence (a male TV and radio national broadcaster, aged 51). Our aim was to compare users who discovered the app before and after this coverage.MethodsA natural experiment assessing the impact of media coverage of Drink Less on users’ socio-demographic and drinking characteristics, app engagement levels, and extent of alcohol reduction. The study period was from 17th May 2017 to 23rd January 2019, with media coverage starting on 21st August 2018. Users were 18 years or over, based in the UK and interested in drinking less. Interrupted time series analyses using Generalised Additive Mixed Models were conducted for each outcome variable aggregated at the weekly level.ResultsIn 66 weeks prior to the media coverage, 8617 users downloaded the app and 18,959 in 23 weeks afterwards. There was a significant step-level increase in users’ mean age (B = 8.17, p < .001) and a decrease in the percentage of female users (B = -27.71, p < .001), though these effects dissipated non-linearly over time. No effect of media coverage was detected on employment type or on the percentage of at-risk drinkers, though the mean Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test score was lower after the media coverage (B = -1.43, p = .031). There was a step-level increase in app engagement – number of sessions (B = 3.45, p = .038) and number of days used (B = 2.30, p = .005) – which continued to increase over time following quadratic trends.ConclusionsCelebrity influence leading to national media coverage in the UK of the Drink Less app was associated with more people downloading the app who were male, older and engaged with the app; and did not appear to impact employment inequality.

Gender Inequality in STEM Employment and Earnings at Career Entry: Evidence from Millennial Birth Cohorts

Although science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors remain male dominated, women’s greater enrollment in STEM is one of the greatest transformations to occur in U.S. higher education in the past half century. But to what extent have women’s gains in STEM enrollment translated to greater parity in labor market outcomes? Although the challenges women face in STEM have been well documented, questions about the influence of gender for STEM employment and earnings differences remain. In the present research, the authors use data from recent birth cohorts in the American Community Survey between 2009 and 2018 (starting with the first year college majors were available in the survey) and a reweighting technique from labor economics to track the evolution of gender inequalities in STEM employment and earnings inequality among STEM work at the onset of labor market entry. Even among a sample expected to produce highly conservative gender differences, sizable gender inequalities in STEM employment are observed. The authors show that despite women’s gains in STEM education among recent cohorts, women with STEM degrees face employment prospects in STEM work that more closely resemble those of men without STEM degrees than men with STEM degrees. Moreover, although modest gender earnings gaps eventually emerge for those without STEM degrees, large gaps occur at the outset of employment for STEM workers. Thus, although STEM education provides important opportunities for women’s earning potential, it may be less effective in itself to address significant gender inequalities among STEM employment.

The Racial Gap in Employment and Layoffs during COVID-19 in the United States: A Visualization.

A large body of sociological research has shown that racial minorities and women experience significant disadvantages in the labor market. In this visualization, the author presents evidence from the Current Population Survey examining the effects of the coronavirus disease 2019 crisis on racial and gender inequalities in employment in the United States among prime-age workers. The author shows that the white-nonwhite gap in employment increased significantly during the post-outbreak period. Results from individual fixed-effects regression models show a strong white male advantage in the likelihood of being laid off for post-outbreak months compared with women, black men, Hispanic men, and Asian men.

LEGAL PROBLEMS OF LEGAL ENTITIES 'LIABILITY FOR DAMAGES TO THE ENVIRONMENT REGULATION

The relevance of this study. Gender inequality in employment is a complex phenomenon that can be observed in organizational structures, work processes and practice. It should be noted that this is a global problem, as equal rights, and opportunities for both sexes have not been fully and comprehensively implemented either in Lithuania or in many other countries. It should be noted that in 1998 Lithuania was one of the first in Eastern and Central Europe to adopt the Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men. The analyzed topic is especially relevant, because in both Lithuania and Turkey there are more and more cases of violations of women's rights in labor relations. According to the Special Investigation Service, there is an increasing number of cases of such offenses with signs of discrimination. However, political confidence in Lithuania remains relatively low due to the democratic deficit: democracy is not yet rooted enough to give the public absolute confidence in state institutions, and state institutions themselves do not function in a way that promotes trust in them. All this creates a negative image of the Lithuanian work environment. Some employment authorities are passive in responding to this situation and are not looking for solutions to prevent this phenomenon. There is currently no system in place to reveal or recommend the most effective methods of combating discrimination in employment. The main problem. Analyzing the problematic situation regarding violations of women's rights in labor legal relations, the following main problems can be raised: firstly, it is more difficult for women, as weaker parties to the employment relationship, to protect themselves from guarantees that are not applied to them properly, for example by employers abusing their position by not giving workers raising their days of rest or by not respecting the statutory right to leave. While these violations appear to be of a general nature, they are considered violations of women’s rights. secondly, although discrimination is widely discussed in society, cases of discrimination are not always recognizable. Cases of sexual harassment, or open statements and actions of the employer against a person's gender, age, nationality, are usually imagined in terms of discrimination. Less emphasized types of discrimination remain unrecognized, with the result that the employee does not defend his or her violated rights. thirdly, distrust of state-provided remedies for violated rights still prevails in both Lithuania and Turkey. Often, a large proportion of women have experienced violations of equal rights and opportunities without recourse. The following tasks: 1. To clarify the concepts of women and labor rights. 2. To identify the problems of violations of women's rights in labor legal relations. 3. Examine the implementation of equal rights and opportunities in employment. 4. To present the results of the analysis of violations of women's rights based on the data of the conducted research. The aim of this work Analyse the legal acts ensuring women's rights and identify areas for improvement in the fight against violations of women's rights in labour relations. The paper concluded that discrimination against women in employment often has a negative impact on women's earnings and opportunities, as well as a significant shortage of women in management positions, and women need more time to pursue a career. Probably the main factor that causes women to experience discrimination and rights violations in employment is motherhood. Motherhood and the gender division of labour, for which women have the main responsibility for maintaining their homes and families, are important perpetrators of gender inequality and inequality between women. The novelty the analysis provided insight into today's problems in ensuring women's rights, which will help to draw conclusions and make proposals that could influence the improvement of legislation regulating women's rights. Given that existing research on equal rights is not sufficiently comprehensive and new, and that it focuses on equal rights in general, without excluding women as a subject, research material will be useful for both legal practitioners and researchers who will benefit from the results of this work and will continue the analysis of the issues on this topic. As the result proper implementation of equal rights and opportunities reduces violations of women's rights in employment. The used methodology. The following methods were used in the work: systematic analysis, document analysis, comparative, historical and generalization methods

Regional employment quality in the context of Russia's technological development

The socio-economic inequality of the Russian regions poses a significant threat both to the successful social and technological development of the country. Since employment is one of the crucial highlighters of such inequality, the paper is devoted to assessing regional inequality in terms of employment quality in the context of technological changes. The article presents a system of social and economic indicators to determine the place of each region in the interregional employment inequality. The novelty of the study includes the methodological approaches and methods to estimate regional employment inequality and its components. The authors reveal the employment quality and its main components keeping relatable with the technological development. Based on these points, we developed employment quality coefficient and carried out a typology of Russian regions in terms of the employment quality. The study uses data from the Rosstat on working conditions and economic activity of the population for 2005-2019. The results expand the scientific ideas about the interdependence of employment and technological development. In addition, the research results should be considered when developing the state technical policy, differentiating the employment policy and socio-economic development of the regions.

Гендерні особливості ринку праці в умовах пандемії COVID-19

The article is aimed at exploring the gender features of the labor market in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, along with the impact of quarantine restrictions caused by the introduction of anti-epidemic measures to counteract the spread of coronavirus disease in Ukraine, on the existing balance of gender equality in Ukrainian society. The identified gender inequality manifestations in the labor market have intensified and received negative dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic. Quarantine restrictions and the limited activities of enterprises in the sphere of trade, culture, art, education, hotel business and others, in the structure of employment of which the women’s labor force prevails, have caused an increase in the number of unemployed and a decrease in the social protection of employees involved in these sectors. An increase in the wage gap between women and men during the period of quarantine restrictions both by type of economic activity and by region is identified. The proposals and recommendations are directed towards: taking into account gender needs in overcoming the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic; reducing gender inequality and injustice in employment and income; ensuring support for political activity of the female population, involvement in decision-making in the life of both the community and the State; strengthening liability for direct or indirect discrimination and gender inequality; taking into account in the programs of socio-economic development of territories of gender needs as to different age groups; introduction of training aimed at ensuring gender approach and gender equality in organizations and enterprises; financial, economic, legal and educational support for the development of women’s business. Prospect for further research in this direction is to determine the impact of the existing level of gender equality and the structure of employment by gender in the sectors on the possibilities of economic development of the country.

The Role of Education in Bridging Regional Employment Inequality – Evidence from China

The Role of Education in Bridging Regional Employment Inequality – Evidence from China

Available but Not Approachable: Black Business Students’ Interactions with Faculty at a Historically White Institution

Persistent racial inequities in educational attainment and employment negatively affect the economic mobility of the Black population in the United States. Among college graduates, Black people are underrepresented in most high-paying college majors, except for business. In this phenomenological study framed by Critical Race Theory, Black business students (n=10) at a Historically White Institution shared their perceptions of the climate and experiences of interactions with faculty. Students reported they often felt unwelcome and othered in the White-dominated space and received limited support from White faculty that were frequently “available but not approachable”. Future research and practice should focus on institutional strategies to address racism by developing an equitable and welcoming business school culture and fostering cultural competence of faculty.&#x0D; &#x0D;

Labor Market Discrimination against African Immigrants’: Between Employment Vulnerability and Social Exclusion

This article explores labor market discrimination against African immigrants’ who are settled in Norway. For this, it considers to what extent the career prospects of the migrants’ are limited in the Norwegian labor market. In addition, it examines how the employment position of the migrants’ affect their socioeconomic status. The article, further, analyze and discuss the factors that mitigate or reinforce inequality in the sector. Using a qualitative interview of 20 respondents with backgrounds from seven African countries, the article uncovers that, the immigrants’ seem to suffer from significant discrimination in employment. To this end, labor market discrimination warrants critical analysis aimed at transformation by confronting conditions of unequal power relations in the employment fields. The article recognizes that equal opportunities and a more dynamic labor market is an indispensable element of labor inclusion and integration in mainstream society. Against the background of increasing ethnic diversity, a greater emphasis on equal access to the labor market will have positive ramifications on belongingness, social cohesion, participation and collective well-being. In contrast, inequalities in employment often coincide with destabilizing circuits of social marginalization, vulnerability, poverty, and financial stigma. Accordingly, this article allows stakeholders to recognize the increasingly changing realities in the employment fields, adopt proactive measures, appropriate new world of work and the enhancement of human capital.

TOWARDS ELIMINATING DISCRIMINATORY EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES IN NIGERIAN ORGANISATIONS

Equality and non-discriminatory employment practices are rooted in the principle that all employment decisions should be based on individuals’ ability to do a job, regardless of their personal characteristics that are not related to the requirements for job performance. Thus, this study highlights some of the discriminatory employment practices prevalent in Nigerian workplaces. The study is based on review and analysis of both primary and secondary data. The results revealed different forms of discriminatory employment practices among Nigerian organisations. It noted that, discriminations occur in Nigerian workplaces during restructuring and retrenchment, in managing compensation and promotion, training and development, maternity protection, recruitment and selection, use of agency work arrangement and in the design of work environment. The study concludes that there is high prevalence of discriminatory employment practices in Nigerian organisations. It is therefore, recommended that, in line with international best practices, Nigerian organisations/employers cum the Ministry of Labour and Employment should ensure that discriminatory employment practices are reduced to the barest minimum if not completely eliminated in Nigerian workplaces if sustainable organisational performance and national development are to be achieved.

Adult Outcomes of Justice Involved Indigenous Youth.

Juvenile arrest serves as a critical turning point in the life-course that disrupts the successful transition to adulthood and carries numerous consequences including diminished socioeconomic status. Despite their disproportionately high rates of contact with the criminal justice system (CJS), Indigenous people's experiences remain largely invisible in extant research. Further, colonization has left them in an extremely marginalized position in terms of social, economic, and political power, which is compounded by CJS involvement. In the current study, we apply propensity score matching to investigate whether being arrested in adolescence impacts early adult socioeconomic outcomes (i.e., education, employment, and income). Data come from the Healing Pathways project, a longitudinal, community-based participatory study of North American Indigenous young people that includes eight waves of data in adolescence and three waves in early adulthood. We find that being arrested at least once in adolescence is associated with significantly less education and income, and lower rates of full-time employment in young adulthood (mean age = 26.2 years). Criminal justice system involvement widens existing socioeconomic disparities, and remedying these consequences requires changes in how CJS policies are enacted as well as larger structural changes to address significant inequities in income, education, and employment for Indigenous people.