European Employment Research Articles

Firm Financing and the Relative Demand for Labor and Capital

During both the 2008 and the COVID crises, aggregate employment in Europe and the US fell despite continuing growth in the aggregate capital stock. Using more than one million firm-year observations of small and medium European firms between 2003 and 2018, this paper introduces new stylized facts on how firms’ relative demand for labor and capital evolved as their capital structure adjusted to the events of the 2008 crisis. It also provides the first micro-level evidence that firms substitute capital for labor when financing costs rise. The empirical evidence lends support to the hypothesis that substitution is driven by an incentive to raise holdings of collateralizable capital. The analysis uses the heterogeneous effects of ECB monetary policy surprises across the firm distribution to identify exogenous firm-level external financing shocks. The results suggest that maintaining a well functioning credit market supports a higher labor share of economic growth.

When elective affinities foster Europeanization: How the EU active welfare state model and national policies for controlling the unemployed reinforced each other (1997-2005)

This paper advocates the use of a Weberian framework in the analysis of the processes of Europeanization of public policies. It focuses on employment policies to explore the "elective affinities" between the European Employment Strategy launched in 1997 and the subsequent elaboration of national reforms reorganizing and strengthening monitoring, surveillance, and sanctions of the unemployed. From this perspective, Europeanization is defined as mutual reinforcement between European policy frames and national reforms than a top-down unilateral relationship of influence.

Balancing work and care: the effect of paid adult medical leave policies on employment in Europe

Increasing caregiving needs for family members has created pressure on prime-age workers. Combined with the ageing population, the demand for care related to illness and disability by relatives mean more of the workforce may have to consider caring needs (Bauer and Sousa-Poza, 2015). ‘Informal caregivers’ provide care generally without payment (Yooet al., 2004). In contrast to formal care, informal caregivers usually have a close relationship with the recipient: for example, siblings and adult children. Informal caregiving is considered a desirable option to meet support needs from several perspectives; these caregivers may be preferred by recipients relative to formal arrangements especially during severe acute illnesses. Caregivers may also feel a personal sense of responsibility to look after loved ones rather than defer to strangers (Fine, 2012) though this may depend on the individual’s needs and the available alternatives. Although men are starting to play an important role due to shifting social gender roles, the vast majority of informal caregivers are women who increasingly attempt to juggle caring with labour force participation (Carmichaelet al., 2008).

Why Aren’t More Theories Named After Women? Teaching Women’s History in Physics

Barriers to women’s education and employment in Europe and the United States in the 19th century made it unlikely that any women would be among the few physicists whose ideas are taught in high school and college courses. This paper explores the social settings in which three influential physicists worked—James Clerk Maxwell, Robert Millikan, and Albert Einstein—to better understand the limited opportunities available to women. By acknowledging and explaining why there weren’t more women among these founding physicists, instructors may help students understand the barriers that still exist and feel more empowered to overcome them and pursue physics as a career.

Розробка інформаційної системи семантичної ідентифікації і документування результатів неформального й інформального навчання

We analyse modern approaches to the interaction of the educational services market with the labour market through recognition of non-formal and informal learning outcomes. The authors prove the expediency of semantic technologies used for information processing at the knowledge level. ESCO classifier that combines services of the labour market and the educational market is examined in detail. This classifier allows jobseekers and employers from different EU member states to handle information on learning outcomes more efficiently. The analyzes of practical ESCO classifier usage on example of the European Employment Service (EURES) demonstrates that this approach provides all necessary information for jobseekers abroad. The ontological analysis is an efficient way to model the ideas of various subject domains and it allows to represent formally their semantics. Hence, the research analyzes the ontological model for this information system and its components; in particular, the authors provide the described content of the ESCO ontological model which consists of three elements – occupations, skills and qualifications. The paper offers an information system for semantic identification and documentation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes based on the ESCO ontological model. The authors select and analyze the main stages of the system development: an ontology scheme in the Protege editor is created; the process of integrating the ontology in the RDF-repository is described; the architecture and user interface of the suggested information system are developed. Semantic graphs database GraphDB is used for ontology storage. To implement the addition and modification of data in GraphDB repository, connectors are used. Access to the RDF-repository is provided with SPARQL query language, whose outcomes are represented as result sets or RDF-graphs. In addition, the research justifies the use of React framework for development of the information system user interface. The architecture and user interface of information system proposed in this research work allow to carry out the semantic identification and documentation of non-formal and informal learning outcomes. Thus, they increase the efficiency of managing the information about these outcomes.

Effect of the Great Crisis on Sectoral Female Employment in Europe: A Structural Decomposition Analysis

Sectoral gender segregation in labor markets is a fact. This paper examines the female distribution of employment by sectors in the EU 28, thereby contributing to the literature on the effects of the recession and subsequent austerity measures on female employment. An input-output model and structural decomposition analysis are used to assess the contribution of factors such as technological change, productivity change and final demand change. The latter had a positive impact over the period of analysis by creating new job opportunities for women, especially in the public service sectors, whereas productivity growth had a negative impact, particularly in the private service sectors. These changes have resulted in a reduction in the level of gender sectoral segregation; change in household expenditure again is the main driver of this reduction. Changing trends in labor requirements and gross capital formation have the opposite effect; thus, these trends increase the level of sectoral segregation.

La politique européenne de l’emploi au service de la compétitivité

La stratégie européenne pour l’emploi a été développée dans un contexte de forte critique de la construction européenne. Elle visait à rééquilibrer la construction communautaire en lui adossant un versant social. Le prescrit communautaire a été établi dans le cadre de la méthode ouverte de coordination et a progressivement été unifié autour d’un référentiel libéral de mise en concurrence. La crise de 2008 a subordonné cette politique aux impératifs de compétitivité et d’austérité budgétaire. Classification JEL : O52, D78, H 53, J48

Moving targets: Target groups of active labour market policies and transitions to employment in Europe

This study drew on recurrent debates related to labour market mobility among the unemployed and those outside the labour force and asked to what extent active labour market policies (ALMP) increase employment in these two groups. By utilising new programme‐level data on ALMP, the study analysed the impact of core programmes directed towards registered unemployed; peripheral programmes that target the inactive part of the working age population; and mixed programmes targeting both groups. The programme data were combined with individual‐level panel data from the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions and analysed using multilevel analysis. The main results show that both resources devoted to programmes and their size were related to employment transitions. Transitions among the unemployed were mainly associated with spending on core programmes, whereas the inactive seemed to benefit from increased spending on all types of programmes, as well as increased scope of mixed programmes.

Технологический прогресс и рынок труда: влияние на занятость, безработицу и рабочее время (Technological Progress and the Labor Market: Effects on Employment, Unemployment and Working Time)

Russian Abstract: Данная работа посвящена рассмотрению влияния современных и будущих технологий на рынок труда. Было проанализировано насколько оправданы ожидания массовой безработицы в России и мире, и какие другие последствия технологические инновации могут нести для рынка труда. Отдельное внимание было уделено предпринимаемым мерам государственной политике на рынке труда. Анализ более 200 программ, проводимых службами занятости в странах Европейского Союза, привел к парадоксальному выводу: несмотря на постоянно звучащие намерения о реформировании основных мер политики на рынке труда, европейские службы занятости продолжают использовать стандартный набор практик. В целом это традиционные меры, никак не связанные с четвертой промышленной революцией. Российские исследования не находят вклада технологических изменений на российский рынок труда. Однако, принимая во внимание особенности рынка труда в России, можно предположить, что подстройка к технологическим изменениям будет происходить не через канал занятости и безработицы, а через подстройку заработных плат. English Abstract: This work is devoted to considering the impact of modern and future technologies on the labor market. It was analyzed how the expectations of mass unemployment in Russia and the world are justified, and what other consequences technological innovations may have for the labor market. Special attention was paid to measures taken by government policy on the labor market. An analysis of more than 200 programs conducted by employment services in the countries of the European Union led to a paradoxical conclusion: despite constantly voiced intentions to reform the main labor market policies, the European employment services continue to use a standard set of practices. In general, these are traditional measures that have nothing to do with the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Russian studies do not find the contribution of technological change to the Russian labor market. However, taking into account the peculiarities of the labor market in Russia, it can be assumed that the adjustment to technological changes will occur not through the channel of employment and unemployment, but through the adjustment of wages.

Gender-Based Positive Action in Employment in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Legal and Policy Approaches in the EU and EEA

This report considers the use of ‘positive action’ as a key mechanism to advance women’s equality in employment, and to ensure gender-balanced company boards. ‘Positive action’ involves the use of measures that are taken by Governments or other actors to: enable or encourage members of ‘protected groups’ (such as women) to overcome or at least reduce current or past disadvantages (including discrimination); to meet the needs of the protected group that differ from other groups; or to enable or encourage those in the protected groups to participate in a particular activity where they might otherwise be under-represented. The report identifies the current legal and regulatory frameworks and scope of positive action in European Union law and policy, and in the 28 European Union Member States (including the United Kingdom), and the three members of the European Economic Area (comprising Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway). The report aims to lay bare tensions and gaps that may arise in the applicable legal framework between different levels of legal authority, but in particular between EU law and national approaches to positive action. Addressing this issue involves a reflection on whether there are possible inconsistencies or shortcomings in the current EU legal treatment of positive action (including the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union). In light of this analysis, the report makes recommendations for possible European Union action, including suggestions for actions that may be included in any forthcoming EU gender strategy.

Productive Integration, Economic Recession and Employment in Europe: An Assessment Based on Vertically Integrated Sectors

The COVID-19 crisis has revamped the discussion about the redefinition of GVC. This paper contributes to the debate, analysing the productive relationships between European countries in four key manufacturing activities. In particular, the paper addresses two objectives. First, it maps the degree of productive integration in Europe, focusing on the generation of employment in the production of exported intermediate inputs and final goods. Second, it provides a preliminary assessment of the potential impact on employment that the current economic crisis will have on some manufacturing activities across Europe. The analysis is realised employing the concept of vertically integrated labour (Pasinetti, 1973) which allows to account for the employment directly and indirectly involved in the production of final goods. The estimations are derived from Multi-Regional Input-Output tables to map the supply chain and to differentiate between the employment involved in the production of exported intermediate inputs and final goods. The results show that most of the employment involved in the production of final output of the activities studied in the paper is linked to international trade. Although Europe shows a high degree of productive links, there are important differences in the modality of insertion in the productive structure of European countries. Moreover, the impact on the level of employment due to the current economic crisis can be significant, affecting more than 1.3 million of people in Europe. These results are relevant to policy makers, who should consider carefully the high degree of linkages of the European economies when designing measure of support to the economy.

The Costs of Zombification in Europe: Why Austrian Economics Fails and the Empirical Findings for Japan are a Misleading Guide

Abstract Supporters of the Austrian School of Economics and a number of empirical studies have claimed that the increasing number of “zombie” companies is a supply-side reason for the low growth rates in Europe. Often, these studies cite empirical findings for Japan to justify their claims, and conclude that in order to overcome the stagnation phase, bad investments and thus zombie companies should be eliminated from the production process. However, such creative destruction can only prove beneficial if innovative and highly productive companies replace these zombies under full utilization of resources. We ask whether findings on the zombie problem from empirical studies on Japan can be applied directly to the current European situation. We present facts contradicting the idea that productive companies would not have been able to exploit their growth potential in (southern) Europe, allegedly because they could not have found suitable employees since these were tied up in zombie companies on a massive scale. Even under the false assumption of full employment in Europe, existing empirical work shows that the losses due to zombification are only around 3.6 % of GDP over 10 years. In our calculation, that would be 100 euros per capita and year currently far too little to call for a drastic change in ECB monetary policy towards past long-run average short-term rates. JEL Classification: B25, B53, D24, E22, E24, E52, E32, E52, G23, J24

Impact of New Technologies on the Labor Market: Past Lessons and New Challenges

The article is devoted to the review of theoretical and applied studies on the impact of technological progress on the labor market and public policy. Firstly, the influence of previous industrial revolutions is considered. It is shown that new technologies during the last two centuries have been resulting in growth of employment and reduction of working hours. In addition, mass computerization observed in the past few decades has led to polarization of the labor market. Secondly, the concept of the Fourth Industrial Revolution is analyzed. It is pointed out that, despite active discussion of this topic in the mass media and in the expert community, so far the results of the former have been limited and the latest technologies related to it are poorly distributed even in the most developed countries. However, studies devoted to quantitative estimates of automation and labor substitution have a highly controversial methodology. As a result, the majority of alarmist predictions are deemed unfounded. Various studies have indicated that the more likely response to the new technological revolution is not an increase in unemployment, but rather a spread of non-standard employment. Finally, changes in government labor market policy due to technological innovations of recent years are investigated. Despite the persistent intentions to reform the fundamental labor market policies, European employment services continue to apply a standard set of practices. The data available for Russia indicate that the risks of automation and significant changes on the labor market are even lower than in developed countries.

Inverse (A-B/C) translation education in Spain under the EHEA

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to provide a review on the state of the art of translator education into B/C languages in the Spanish post-Bologna university system. During the last ten years, Translation Studies in Spain have witnessed the implementation of new programmes adapted to the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). Universities have gained autonomy to design their translation curricula, which has led to significant differences between programmes. This could not but affect approaches to translation into B/C languages, whose role in translator education has long been considered a sensitive issue. Results from an analysis of working languages and A-B/C translation course units embedded in undergraduate and postgraduate (Master) curricula show that a large number of translator-education units no longer offer the ‘inverse’ translation direction. This perception is felt more strongly in Master programmes despite translation out of the A language has been listed in a number of translation competence models. More importantly, it is a competence considered important or essential in the local and European employment markets, especially in translation environments where English has a place.

Changing structure of Employment in Europe: Polarization Issue

Abstract In recent years, labor markets have experienced a polarization phenomenon, with the rise of low-skill and high-skill workers, and a decline in the number of middle-skill workers. The polarization of the labor market has been most often investigated in the US, UK, and some European countries. This paper shows the changes in the employment structure in all EU countries between 2008 and 2017. Attention is also paid to the Czech Republic and change during 1993 and 2017. The added value of the article lies in two factors. The first is the division of skills by industry in which the worker is located and not by occupational classification, the second is an explicit view of the Czech Republic. The results provide some evidence about the polarization of the labor market in twenty-one EU countries. Results imply polarization also in the Czech Republic during a longer period, because the number of high-skilled and low-skilled workers increased by 6.63 p. p. and by 1.16 p. p. respectively, at the expense of middle-skilled workers.

Bien agiter avant l’emploi. De l’activation des politiques d’emploi à l’agitation des chômeurs

By articulating a pragmatic approach of the labor market intermediaries with a systemic approach of the interactions at the State’s counters, the authors study the follow-up and accompaniment procedure of jobseekers in Belgium, within three public employment services. This procedure appears today as the most successful realization of a reform process, within the employment policies, that is still in progress since the middle of the 1990, under the influence of the European institutions (the European employment strategy). The authors analyze the role of the National Employment Office’s facilitators, the agents who are in charge of the jobseekers’ following-up procedure, that is the control of their effort to find a job. They also focus on the role of the employment counselors of two regional public services by showing that the employability – the official target of the activation policies – operate as a way to speak abstractly of employment and unemployment, as a way to sustain and to intensify the communication at the State’s counters. The action of the labor market intermediaries, qualified by the authors as a moral enterprise, can be characterized by its self-referential nature: to socialize the job seekers, to make them sensitive to the norms and standards of employability that are at stake in the three public employment services. According to the authors, the ‘labor market’ acts as a fiction: a simplified reconstruction of the world of work, within the political system, that serve as a readily available reference for the public action of intermediation.

Islamic Garb in Public Employment in Europe and the US—From Integration to Accommodation to Anti-Discrimination

According to a recent report by the Open Society Foundation (2018), one third of EU countries have national or local “bans” on Islamic garb. The report identified five common justifications for these restrictions: the imperative to provide security and counter terrorism, the drive for equality between men and women, the desire for homogeneity, the need for integration and assimilation, as well as the pursuit of neutrality and secularity. I argue that it is upon notions of integration and neutrality that we see important differences in the approach towards Islamic garb in public employment between Europe and the US: How can we explain these differences? I attend to this question by focusing on the American public employment sector as my case study. I analyze institutional action on Islamic garb in employment from the 1990s onward through an examination of laws, policies, guidelines/regulations, court decisions, and settlement agreements. In my discussion, I contrast the European need for integration and the pursuit of neutrality to that of religious accommodation in the US. Drawing from this discussion, I make several recommendations for the implementation of an accommodation approach in Europe that is based on principles of anti-discrimination.

Soixante-dix ans après la création du NHS : Quelles politiques de santé publique?

The National Health Service (NHS) turned 70 in 2018 and, to mark the event, this special issue wishes to pay tribute to an organisation and to its workers (doctors, nurses, and administrators) who provide health care to the British population. The institution still promises to provide services free at the point of use from “the cradle to the grave”. It is one of the largest employers in Europe, with over one million staff. The NHS is considered essential as it not only provides health care se...

An Analysis about Learning to IncreaseWomen’s Participation and Employment in Europe’s Energy Transition: Evidence from the European Project MEnS

The Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD) introduced the requirement for all Member States to include the concept of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs) in their national plans. However, this challenge requires upgrading professional skills in NZEB concepts and strategies, thus guaranteeing the maximum impact on NZEB deployment around Europe. This is the objective of MEnS (“Meeting Energy Professional Skills”), an H2020 project focused on providing high quality upskilling and education to architects, engineers, and building professionals. The role of women in the NZEB industry indicates that female participation in the building industry is still low. The need to rebalance this gender gap is highlighted in this work through the identification of female programs and schemes. In addition, the results of women’s participation in the MEnS project is analyzed. The MEns project created and implemented a new education program, training 1200 building managers (engineers and architects) in the designand construction of NZEBs, out of which 46% were women. Focusing on the Spanish case, 18 interviews were randomly conducted with women participants in order to assess the courses and their expectations of employment in the NZEB framework. The method used for the analysis was a semi-structured interview and analysis by the grounded theory. This article describes the participation of women in this educational program and analyses initial conclusions and lessons learnt from this initiative in 10 European countries, including Spain.

The European Employment Strategy, the European Social Pillar and their Impact on Labour Law Reform in the European Union

The article provides a critical account of the impact of the European Employment Strategy (EES) on national labour market policies and labour law systems. It gives an overview of the development of the EES from the 1990s until the introduction of the European Social Pillar (ESP) and analyses its impact in the Member States of the European Union. In particular, it highlights the origins of the EES in debates about European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and examines the importance and the specific nature of the new governance approach adopted by the EES and its significance for labour law reform in the Member States. The article argues that the latest stage in the development of European social policy, associated with the introduction of the ESP, has not led to a change in direction in European social and employment law and policy. Despite its rights-based approach, the ESP merely constitutes the latest stage in the development of the EES and continues in its attempt to prioritize labour market policy concerns in reforming labour law. However, the article also argues that the ESP has potential to be the platform for a proper Social Union.