Employee Learning Research Articles

Learning conditions for continuous improvement in a public service organization

PurposeThis study focuses on a transformation effort in a social welfare department of a Swedish municipality where continuous improvement, which is a Lean principle, was introduced in employees’ everyday work via a workplace development programme (WPDP). The aim of this paper is to explore the conditions (internal and external) that enabled or constrained employee learning during the introduction of continuous improvement into employees’ everyday work in a WPDP-supported social welfare department.Design/methodology/approachThis case study is based mainly on 22 semi-structured interviews with individuals holding different positions in the department and overarching municipality.FindingsThe findings show that multiple and emerging conditions, both internal and external, shaped a predominantly restrictive learning environment during the introduction of continuous improvement into the social welfare department. The major conditions identified were related to the initial implementation and top management’s steering and monitoring of the “Lean investment”, activities and support provided by the WPDP, activities and support provided by the internal Lean support team and first-line managers’ abilities to facilitate employee learning.Originality/valueApart from unique empirical material depicting an effort towards change under conditions far from favourable for employee learning, the value of this study lies in the attention given to the external dynamics that drive change in line with the concept of new public management in public service organizations, including a WPDP that supported the social welfare department.

Organizational Learning and Green Innovation: Does Environmental Proactivity Matter?

Emerging economies face the challenge of striking a balance between development and the environment. To adapt to the changes, organizations must develop dynamic capabilities for green innovation and corporate sustainability. Based on a resource-based view integrated with contingency and stakeholder theories, this study examines how strategic contingency makes differences in the transformation between learning and performance resources through innovation efforts. Oriented toward external and internal stakeholders, respectively, learning resources comprise absorptive capacity and transformative capability, innovation efforts include green product innovation and green process innovation, and performance resources contain green image and competitive advantage. Depicting their mediating relationships moderated by environmental proactivity, the research model is supported by survey observations collected from over 300 organizations in China. Environmentally proactive organizations are found to have more balanced dynamic capability development than those that are more reactive. To optimize green innovation, therefore, organizations need to embrace an ecological strategy and engage employees in learning.

Two modes of learning-oriented leadership: a study of first-line managers

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to explore what learning-oriented leadership could mean in practice and to identify possible sources of variability in this leadership between first-line managers (FLMs). The empirical basis of the study comprised FLMs in nursing homes for elderly care.Design/methodology/approachThe study was carried out using a sequential mixed-method design based on interviews, observations and documentary analysis.FindingsThe study contributes an in-depth analysis of two modes of learning-oriented leadership: development-oriented and production-oriented. The two orientations represent an open and enabling pattern versus a constraining and controlling pattern of leading and organizing employee learning and development. The observed differences in learning-oriented leadership between the FLMs were interpreted in terms of the demands–constraints–choices model proposed by Stewart (1982; 1989).Research limitations/implicationsFuture research should include data from employees to analyze how the mode of learning-oriented leadership shapes the conditions and opportunities for learning at work.Practical implicationsEmployee learning and development issues should be clearly linked to business strategies, and it is imperative that senior managers actively support and follow up on FLMs’ work with these issues. Furthermore, there is a strong need for training and development of FLMs – formal and informal – to improve their knowledge of and skills in leading and organizing workplace learning.Originality/valueThe study adds to previous research by elaborating what learning-oriented leadership could mean in practice and how it can be theoretically understood.

Mediating and moderating impact of goal orientation and emotional intelligence on the relationship of knowledge oriented leadership and knowledge sharing

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the underlying mechanism through which knowledge-oriented leadership (KOL) encourages knowledge sharing (KS) among the employees. It investigates KOL as an antecedent of KS. Furthermore, it also examines the mediation of employee goal orientation in the relationship of KOL and KS. Moderating role of emotional intelligence is also examined.Design/methodology/approachMultilayer data were collected from 223 employees of pharmaceutical industry in Pakistan. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is applied to analyse the model and hypothesis.FindingsThe result supports the direct positive effect of KOL on KS. Indirect effect of KOL on KS through the mediation of employee learning goal orientation is also supported by the result.Practical implicationsOrganizations or managers should engage their learning-oriented employees newly hired employee and front line manager in KS process. Leader should give different task to such an employee who did not perform earlier because in doing so, such employee will explore or exploit their own tacit knowledge and that of their colleagues.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by establishing unexplored indirect effect of KOL on KS through the mediation of employee goal orientation. By discussing goal orientation as an outcome of KOL, this study extends the literature of the outcomes of KOL, which are currently limited to KM, work attitudes and innovative performance.

Encouraging the Collection of Performance Data in Nonprofit Organizations: The Importance of Organizational Support for Learning

This article provides insight into how to facilitate performance data collection within nonprofit organizations. Following research on organizational learning, we propose that nonprofits that provide higher support for employee learning and development activities are more likely to collect performance data than those that provide limited support to such activities. We assess this hypothesis with data collected from 154 employees in 26 nonprofits in the greater New York Capital region. We find that higher support for learning indeed has a positive relationship with performance data collection, but the strength of this relationship depends on the nonprofits’ capacity to conduct performance assessment and clarity of their organizations goals. Implications of these results for research and practice on performance management in nonprofits are discussed.

The impact of goal progress and individual differences on self‐regulation in training

AbstractThe present study examined how individuals in an organizational training program regulated both their performance goals and effort in response to goal–performance discrepancies (GPDs), as well as the impact of individual differences (goal orientation) on these processes. Four hundred and sixty‐two employees participating in a high‐fidelity training simulation for a pharmaceutical sales position were observed over the course of 10 days to examine how they altered both their goals and individual effort in response to performance feedback they received from the organization. Consistent with past research conducted outside of the workplace, the results indicated that both goal revision and effort expenditure were significantly related to the GPDs experienced by individuals such that individuals receiving feedback that they were performing below their goal were likely to both set less challenging future goals and exert more effort. Results also suggested that this relationship was moderated by the employee's learning goal orientation (LGO) and performance‐avoid goal orientation. Individuals with a strong LGO were more likely to address GPDs by increasing effort, whereas those with a strong performance‐avoid orientation tended to utilize goal revision to address their GPDs. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Understanding metacognition: concepts supporting employee learning and growth

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to express metacognitive functioning in general terms and to explain how it influences employee learning/knowledge acquisition, self-regulation, engagement and growth mind-set.Design/methodology/approachThe authors provide a viewpoint grounded on a review of recent research regarding the regulation of learning on-the-job. Concepts are expressed in a direct manner for the use of human resource practitioners and managers.FindingsMetacognition is mental work that helps one to regulate and improve his/her learning. The authors find that there are ways for human resource practitioners and/or managers to assist employees improve their learning practices that ultimately influence work activities and outcomes.Originality/valueMetacognition is not a scientific mumbo-jumbo; it represents how one learns to learn. In organizations, it is important to understand how a typical employee may improve her/his learning processing and learning outputs. Authors suggest that practitioners and managers attain some understanding of metacognition and how one may stimulate improved learning processing in employees.

MOOCs in the workplace: an intervention for strategic human resource development

ABSTRACT The purpose of this conceptual research is to explore the potential of using massive open online courses (MOOCs) as a strategic tool for employee learning and development in corporate settings by reviewing the literature and practices from a strategic human resource development (HRD) perspective. Human capital theory and strategic HRD were selected as the theoretical framework to make a connection between MOOCs and HRD. The general features of MOOCs, MOOC research in the workplace, and relationships among MOOCs, human capital, and strategic HRD are summarized. This study also introduces three examples of Indian and global organizations that use MOOCs as an intervention for strategic HRD. For each example, we describe the context, process/progress, and outcomes. Discussion, implications, and recommendations for future research are elaborated.

Learning-structure fit part II

PurposeThis study, which consists of two parts, investigates the influence of structure on the learning of individuals in organizational settings. This second paper (Part II) builds on the conceptual paper (Part I) and explores the relationships between three structural dimensions of individual work – formalization, specialization and standardization – on employee learning behavior.Design/methodology/approachMultiple regression analysis was used to test the proposed relationships. Data were gathered in a large multinational corporation; 90 employees from 12 units participated in the research.FindingsThe results offer support for some of the proposed hypotheses, showing that employee learning behavior varies depending on how activities are structured. Employees perceiving their work to be less structured, with lower formalization, standardization and specialization, rely on external sources of knowledge and experience double-loop learning, whereas employees with a more structured work are inclined to an individual learning style. Structure thus determines learning.Research limitations/implicationsBecause this exploratory study used a single-company research setting, the use of multiple companies from different industries and additional measures of learning behavior are proposed to increase generalizability. A quasi-experimental research design would add to causality claims.Practical implicationsImplications for broader organization design practice to stimulate learning are proposed. Managers should be aware of the distinct impacts different structures have on learning behavior.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the discussion on the relationship between structure and the learning of individuals at work.

Measuring Tacit Knowledge: A Deliberate Construct Validation Using Structural Equation Modelling

Tacit knowledge (TK) is an intangible asset of the organisation and forms a major part of organisational knowledge. TK is personal, context-specific knowledge, difficult to formalise, record or articulate and it is stored in the heads of people. TK is part of informal learning components. TK has received growing attention and popularity due to its uniqueness and significant contributions to organisational performance. Despite its crucial role, the effects of TK on employee learning have often been neglected due to the notion of measurement difficulty. As a result, it poses challenges to capture both knowledge and expertise of individuals. This paper presents and discusses the construct validation of TK. Construct validity is a test that measures the intended construct and is particularly important in the social sciences-related disciplines. This paper deliberates how items development for TK is measured and tested for validation. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) technique was employed for construct validation in terms of convergent and discriminant validities. Pre- and post-validations were also conducted to detect any validation discrepancies using exploratory factor analysis.

The positive impact of guilt

PurposeA self-regulatory framework to explore the positive effects of negative emotions on proactive outcomes for employees is discussed. The purpose of this paper is to examine how and when employee feedback can facilitate feelings of guilt and result in positive learning behaviors in the workplace.Design/methodology/approachThe authors test the research model using data from field surveys based on a two-wave data collection from 176 employees. Participants completed two paper-based surveys with a time lag of one week.FindingsThe results demonstrate that the feelings of guilt work as a mediator in the association between feedback and employee learning. As a specific negative emotion, guilt has a significant and positive impact on employee learning in the workplace. The findings also demonstrate that transformational leadership can make employees aware of the gap between expectations and their performance. Transformational leaders motivate guilty employees to engage in learning activities through the promotion of regulatory focus.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the literature on emotions and employee learning in several ways. First, the study raises the association between feedback and employee learning through guilt in the workplace. Second, the study considers the boundaries for facilitating learning behaviors.

Employee learning motives, perceived learning opportunities and employability activities

PurposeThis paper aims to examine whether employability activities are driven by employee learning motives and their perception of learning opportunities.Design/methodology/approachData were collected using a closed questionnaire survey from three different profit organizations (N = 405). Hypotheses were tested through hierarchical multiple regression analysis.FindingsHierarchical regressions showed that the learning motive “personal development” had a positive relationship with “perceived learning opportunities” and “employability activities,” as hypothesized. “Perceived learning opportunities” did not mediate the relationship between the learning motive “personal development” and “employability activities.” No relationships were found among the learning motives “social pressure,” “perceived learning opportunities” and “employability activities”.Originality ValueThis study is among the first to investigate the motives that employees must engage in individual learning paths. It attempts to predict their self-reported employability activities based on these motives and on the learning opportunities that employees perceive.

Social learning constructs and employee learning performance in informal Web-based learning environments

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between social learning constructs and perceived learning performance in corporate informal Web-based learning environments. The study aims at providing significant implications for corporate educators who have worked on designing social learning environments in the workplace.Design/methodology/approachTo identify the casual relationship of the proposed research model, data collected from 523 South Koreans who were corporate employees and social media users were analyzed using structural equation modeling.FindingsThe results indicate that self-motivation, learning community and social media usage were significantly related to perceived learning performance. In addition, social media usage mediated the relationship between the other social learning constructs and the learning performance.Originality/valueGiven that corporate personnel typically gain job-related knowledge and skills through social learning, corporate educators need to provide learners with social learning environments that are conducive to self-motivation and learning community. Social media, when used as a learning tool, might not sufficiently improve learning performance without the help of other social learning constructs. Findings shed light on which social learning constructs are essential to effective social learning environment design in the workplace.

High-involvement human resource practices, employee learning and employability

PurposeAlthough environmental factors at the organizational level are of importance for individual employability, very few studies have investigated how the practices an organization implements can facilitate employability. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how high-involvement human resources (HIHR) practices (i.e. recognition, competence development, empowerment, information sharing and fair rewards) influence employee learning, which contributes to employability.Design/methodology/approachThe data were collected from 288 pairs of employees and their direct supervisors in Chinese companies. In this study, we measure perceived employability from both employees and their direct supervisors. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis is conducted to test the hypotheses.FindingsThe results indicate that employees’ perceptions of the HIHR practices of recognition, competence development, empowerment and information sharing are positively related to employee learning, and then facilitate self- and supervisor-ratings of employees’ employability. Practices of fair rewards have a negative effect on employee learning and employability.Originality/valueThis study contributes to employability and human resource management literature in several ways. First, the study raises the association between different HIHR practices and perceived employability through employee learning. Second, the study considers both self-rating and supervisor-rating of employability to improve the effectiveness of the results.

Old Dogs, New Tricks: Developing an Aging Workforce

Enhancing and maintaining older employees’ employability has become critical for organizations to ensure their competitiveness. This symposium targets the examination of older employees compared to younger employees regarding learning and development. It investigates the role of age with regard to learning motivation, participation in formal and informal learning activities, manifestations of informal learning, design of formal traditional and technology-based training, and training success. Beyond chronological age, this symposium also addresses subjective age and perceived relative age to the supervisor and the work group. Moreover, it analyzes the role of age stereotypes, age discrimination, and age meta-stereotypes regarding employees’ self-perceived employability and formal and informal learning. Thus, this symposium provides researchers and practitioners insights into how organizations will be able to successfully include older employees in learning and development. Possible Risks of (Meta-) Stereot...

Psychological capital and individual ambidexterity

Recent research has call for psychological explanations for ambidexterity at the micro-level. In response to this call, we develop a conceptual model to examine how psychological capital contributes to individual ambidexterity through employee learning engagement, and how the relationship between psychological capital and individual ambidexterity is contingent on affective organizational commitment at the micro-level. Using data from 871 employees in five large companies in China, we find support for the positive and significant effects of psychological capital on individual ambidexterity. We also find that employee learning engagement acts as a mediator through which psychological capital explains positively individual ambidexterity and affective organizational commitment interacts positively with psychological capital to contribute to individual ambidexterity. These findings provide theoretical and managerial implications.

When and How Disruptive Events Fuel Creativity

A burgeoning body of research has examined the influence of personal and contextual features on employee creativity. Disruptive events permeate increasingly dynamic and uncertain business environments. However, little research has examined when and how disruptive events impact employee creativity. Drawing from event system theory and the creativity literature, this study tests a model in which disruptive event characteristics (i.e., event novelty and criticality) and individual differences (i.e., employee learning orientation) jointly foster employees¡¯ improvisational responses and ultimately employees¡¯ creativity. Our findings based on a three-wave onsite survey of employees and supervisors show that in the presence of disruptive events that are critical and novel, learning-goal oriented employees are most likely to engage in improvisation, which in turn leads to employee creativity.

How do employees’ individual learning paths differ across occupations?

PurposeEmployees are increasingly expected to organize their own human resource development activities. To what extent and how exactly employees in various organizational contexts manage to shape their individual learning paths however remains largely unclear. The purpose of this present study is to explore, leaning on the empirical Learning-Network Theory (LNT) research and its findings, how employees in different occupations create learning paths that are attuned to their specific work context.Design/methodology/approachThe paper reviews 23 MSc theses based on 14 distinct data sets collected between 2005 and 2015, containing approximately 1,484 employees from some 45 organizations and across various professions. The teachers, nurses, postal, software, telecom, railway and logistics company employees were mostly based in the Netherlands. The analysis focuses on learning-path types and learning-path strategies found in the 23 studies.FindingsMotives, themes, activities, social contexts and facilities were found to be instrumental in explaining differences among individual learning paths. A total of 34 original learning-path types and strategies were found to cluster under 12 higher-order labels. Some of these were based on learning motive, some on learning theme, some on core learning activities, some on social learning context and a few on a combination of these elements. Overall, the socially oriented learning-path strategy was the most prevalent, as it was found among nurses, employees of software/postal/telecom, railway and logistics company employees, as well as teachers in two schools.Originality/valueThe paper presents the first overview of empirical studies on employee learning path(s) (strategies). In addition, it strengthens the empirical basis of the LNT.

Trading off learning and performance: Exploration and exploitation at work

Employees are increasingly given control over how they learn, and their choices for training are diverse and varied, yet employees must balance competing demands. On one hand, they are expected to be increasingly efficient in their current job duties – on the other hand, they are expected to develop new skills and competencies that enable them to adapt and respond to changing job demands. Drawing from the organizational learning literature, we propose a model of worker and work characteristics that inform choices between two mindsets related to learning at work. The first mindset is exploration, or the pursuit of learning outside one’s current knowledge domain; the second mindset is exploitation, the refinement/deepening of one’s existing knowledge stock focusing on the task at hand. We further propose that these strategic choices, or trade-offs, influence employee learning and performance in unique ways, with different implications for both routine and adaptive performance. Finally, we incorporate the notions of feedback loops and risk assessments that influence ongoing decisions between exploration and exploitation mindsets. Recommendations for future research and extensions of the theoretical model are also proposed.

Enhancing Employee Job satisfaction via E-learning: The Mediating Role of an Organizational Learning Culture

ABSTRACTAlthough e-learning systems have been widely employed to develop employee learning at a workplace, discerning what influences the interaction between employee acceptance of an e-learning system within an organizational learning culture (OLC) and the resultant impact on job attitudes remains under-researched and requires further investigation. This study examined the relationship between employee perceptions of an e-learning system, the existing OLC, and job satisfaction. Structural equation modeling was applied to analyze data collected from 297 employees of a telecommunications company. The results suggest that employee acceptance of e-learning is a positive predictor of the OLC and employee job satisfaction. OLC mediates the relationship between the use and acceptance of e-learning by employees and their job satisfaction. Recommendations and implications are subsequently provided in terms of the future for human resource development researches and practices.