Emergency Planning Zone Research Articles

Contaminant Resistance of Buildings in Emergency Planning Zones

The article defines a theoretical basic research of possibilities to increase resistance of buildings in the zones of emergency planning of nuclear power stations and chemical facilities. It presents the key measure of population protection, of a repressive character, which is a provisional sheltering based on using natural safety attributes of buildings. Depending on this measure it defines basic physical attributes of building materials and technical requirements for buildings located in emergency planning zones. The end of the contribution presents possible ways to evaluate safety attributes of buildings in terms of permeability of radioactive and chemical substances.

Residential Household Knowledge and Receipt of Potassium Iodide within the 10-Mile Emergency Planning Zone of a Nuclear Power Plant in North Carolina, 2010

There has been renewed interest in radiological preparedness and countermeasures for nuclear power plant (NPP) emergencies in the United States as a result of the Fukushima Daiichi accident in March 2011. One such countermeasure, potassium iodide (KI), was voluntarily pre-distributed to households in a central North Carolina community living within the 10-mile Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ) of a NPP in 2010. The goal of this study was to evaluate household KI coverage among EPZ residents following this pre-distribution campaign, as well as to assess knowledge and beliefs about KI. A guided interview and self-administered questionnaire was administered to a random sample of 177 EPZ households. Findings indicate four months post-distribution that this program resulted in low household KI coverage rates (< 5%) and low KI knowledge levels. Results demonstrate the need for improved KI pre-distribution and education strategies targeting households within the designated 10-mile EPZ.

Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis for economic optimisation of new energy source in Lithuania

Study presented in this paper consists of two main parts: the modelling of future energy system development scenarios and the analysis of the influence of main initial model parameters to the calculation results (sensitivity and uncertainty analysis). Economic modelling and optimisation was concentrating on evaluation of possibilities to construct a new energy source. The MESSAGE modelling tool was used for modelling and optimisation of the future energy system development. In this study, the introduced approach was applied focussing on small and medium nuclear reactor (SMR), which could be one of the future energy source options in Lithuania. As an example of SMR, the IRIS (International Reactor Innovative and Secure) nuclear reactor was chosen in this study. Finally, the analysis of uncertainty and sensitivity enabled to investigate how uncertain are results of modelling and how this uncertainty is sensitive to the uncertainty of model parameters. In the particular case we have analysed how Lithuanian energy system development scenarios could change, when changing the initial model parameters describing IRIS technology. If IRIS could be built near the cities without Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ) where a big heat demand is, it could be safely used not only for electricity generation, but also for heat supply for residential and industrial consumers. This will allow not only to reduce energy prices but also to decrease fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

Understanding Public Response to Nuclear Power Plant Protective Actions

AbstractAmong the most important factors affecting the viability of alternative sheltering and evacuation strategies are the views and reactions of the public within the threat zone. If the general population does not believe that undertaking prescribed protective actions will make them safer, or if they do not see protective action messages as credible and practicable, then even the most technically sound plans can be rendered totally ineffective. To gain a deeper understanding of the views and potential reactions of the general public living within nuclear power plant (NPP) Emergency Planning Zones (EPZs) to protective action strategies, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission sponsored focus groups and a national telephone survey of the public living in EPZs. Data from the research can be used by NPP industry officials and emergency planners in developing appropriate protective action recommendations to radiological accidents. Findings of this research can also be extended to other similar types of emergencies or generalized to any emergency condition.

Avertable dose intervention applied in emergency response dose evaluation system for nuclear emergency preparedness in Taiwan

In Taiwan the new guides for the nuclear emergency public protective action were laid down by the Atomic Energy Council (AEC) of Executive Yuan, Taiwan, ROC on July 15th, 2005. The main modifications of the guides are that the avertable dose is applied as the intervention levels and suggests the public protective actions. The emergency response dose evaluation system named RPDOSE, which was developed in 2005, was employed in this work to enhance the capability of the avertable dose evaluation for the villages in the emergency planning zone (EPZ). The period of the long-term weather forecasting data was extended from 4 to 8 days to satisfy the requirement of avertable dose computing. According to the intervention levels, the RPDOSE system is used to calculate the avertable dose and suggest appropriate public protective actions such as sheltering, evacuation or iodine prophylaxis as well as the proposed acting times for each village in the EPZ. This system was employed and examined in the annual nuclear emergency exercise of 2008 in the Maanshan nuclear power plant.

How near is near? The distance perceptions of residents of a nuclear emergency planning zone

This paper reports the results of a study conducted within the emergency planning zone (EPZ) of the Nine Mile Point (NMP) nuclear complex located in Oswego County, New York. An EPZ is the area in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant for which detailed plans are implemented for the management of emergencies and for the communication of the risks of nuclear energy production. EPZs are subdivided into emergency response planning areas (ERPAs) according to distance from the plant. This study aimed at discovering how residents of the NMP EPZ perceived distance to the nuclear plant. Distance was conceptualized in five different and complementary ways: estimated straight line distance, estimated driving distance, actual straight distance, actual driving distance and perceived distance. The results indicate that people living at a very short distance from the nuclear plant perceive and estimate distance differently than people living farther away. These results have policy implications and suggest alternative and potentially more efficient ways to redesign ERPAs. Fundamental geographic variables and concepts such as distance, location, proximity and their associated human perceptions are important human dimensions of risk analysis. These results should be of interest to nuclear emergency planners and are probably applicable to many other hazard planning activities.

The research reactor radiation emergency countermeasure system in Korea

A disaster prevention system was established for a radiation emergency from an operation of a research reactor with a thermal power of 30 MW th in Korea. A national radiation disaster countermeasure organization was set up to cope with the radiation emergency classified into three cases whose effective doses were more than 1 mSv/h inside the nuclear facility, inside the site boundary and outside the site boundary. Its role consists of the proclamation and consequent withdrawal of a disaster, a general assessment, an emergency medical service, a field control, radiation protection, resident protection implement, an accident analysis, a security plan, a radiation environmental investigation plan and probe, a radiation environmental effect assessment, and others. The emergency planning zone (EPZ) was settled to be within a radius of 800 m, the average distance between the site boundary and the center of a research reactor in operation, as a quick and effective early countermeasure from the result of the radiation environmental effect assessment. The environmental probing zone was chosen to extend to a radius of 2 km from a research reactor according to the moving path of the radioactive cloud so that a densely populated area could be considered and would be extended to 10 km according to the radiation level of the research reactor and atmospheric diffusion. Practically, the environmental probing is implemented at 22 points inside the site and eight points outside the site considering the geography, population and the wind direction. The gamma radiation dose and atmospheric radioactivity are analyzed during an effluence, and the radioactivity of a ground surface deposit and an environmental sample are analyzed after an effluence. The environmental laboratory covers the analysis of the gamma radioisotopes, tritium, strontium, uranium, gross alpha and beta. It is estimated that the habitability can be recovered when the radiation dose rate is less than 1 mSv/h inside the site and around the environmental laboratory with the no sign of an effluence of the radioactive material. As a conclusion, it is thought that this emergency countermeasure system is effective in a real radiation emergency situation.

Improvement of accident dose consequences simulation software for nuclear emergency response applications

This study integrated the nuclear power plant simulation software, PCTRAN, with an atmospheric diffusion model to efficiently evaluate a nuclear power plant accident and its off-site dose consequences. PCTRAN, with its user-friendly interface, provides a fast simulation scheme that can simulate many kinds of nuclear power plant accidents. Once accident initiation events are activated in the software, the plant parameters are calculated and displayed via animations on the user interface. Based on the simulated plant conditions, the radioactive materials considered in the software may be released from the plant to the environment. In this study, a dispersion algorithm, including a modified atmospheric diffusion model and its programming method, is proposed such that PCTRAN satisfies the application requirements to be used to plan nuclear emergency responses. First, the modified atmospheric diffusion model handles the variations of meteorological conditions (wind direction, wind velocity, and stability category) during a nuclear power plant accident simulation. Furthermore, the proposed programming method promotes calculation capability and efficiency by reducing the computational burden. For demonstration purposes, a postulated accident event was simulated for the Maanshan Nuclear Power Plant in Taiwan. The overall accident evolution, whole plant response, and off-site dose consequences could be predicted much earlier than what actually occurs. The thyroid and whole body dose rates (and their accumulations) as a function of accident time are displayed on the map within the emergency planning zone (EPZ). The influence of the accident on the off-site area can thus be estimated earlier, and the emergency classification can be determined by referring to the emergency action levels (EALs) for a quick nuclear emergency response.

Technical basis for off-site emergency planning in France

Past experiences from nuclear accidents have clearly shown the importance of being prepared to manage these situations from public information to implementation of protective actions. This paper summarises the criteria used as a basis for off-site emergency planning and preparedness in France. The emergency response organisation, the general organisational scheme of actions, criteria for countermeasures and the emergency planning zones are briefly described. The establishment of emergency plans requires the definition of a technical basis, in particular the choice of reference source terms. The reference source terms used in France are described and the perspectives of evolution explained. The final section briefly presents the status of Level 2 PSA in France and the link with emergency planning.

Emergency zoning around nuclear power plants in Slovakia

This paper presents summary information on emergency preparedness and planning in Slovakia. Safety policy, current and possible future requirements to the emergency on-site plans, off-site plans and emergency transport orders, as well as to the documentation, their regular updating and review are summarised. National emergency preparedness organisation, zones used, and special and technical facilities are briefly described. PSA requirements, applications and interface between deterministic and probabilistic analyses in support of emergency planning are given. A legislative background and the approach to the determination of Emergency Planning Zones (EPZs) around the nuclear facilities are provided. Trends and future plans for redefinition of emergency zones are outlined.

Accident consequence assessment and its implications for emergency planning of the pilot commercial HTR plant in China

An effort has been launched in China to construct a pilot commercial plant using high temperature reactors. This paper presents the major results of accident consequence assessment performed in the framework of a preliminary environmental impact evaluation. Based on this, the implications of this consequence calculation for emergency planning are discussed. Finally, the current regulatory requirements on emergency zoning around nuclear power plants in China and some discussions about the establishment of emergency planning zones around the Taiwan Nuclear Power Plant imported from Russia are also briefly described in this paper.

International requirements for the establishment of emergency zones

This paper describes briefly the current international requirements associated with the establishment of emergency planning zones around nuclear or radiological facilities. It also describes the current guidance in determining the size and other characteristics of these zones.

Development of accident dose consequences simulation software for nuclear emergency response applications

This study integrated the nuclear power plant simulation software, PCTRAN, with the atmospheric puff model to efficiently evaluate a nuclear power plant accident and its offsite dose consequences. PCTRAN is a PC based simulation code with user-friendly interface, and is capable of running faster than real time. Accident initiation events can be activated in the software, and the radioactive materials may be released from the plant to the environment. To reduce the computational burden, the software developed in this study considers those radioactive materials are released at the end of every time interval, which is user-predetermined. Therefore, during the progression of the simulated transient or accident, puffs are sequentially generated and dispersed in all directions governed by the Pasquill stability category, wind velocity, and wind direction. The thyroid and whole body dose rates (and their accumulations) are shown as a color-shaded plot on the map at every spatial location within the emergency planning zone (EPZ). In this study, a postulated scenario was simulated to predict its dose consequences during the accident progression. All simulation results, such as the plant state parameters, the activation of control systems, the level of dose, and so on, are visualized in colorful and animated images on the interface. This study also demonstrates that PCTRAN executes the simulation faster than the accident time, so as to facilitate PCTRAN in the application of nuclear emergency response.

Assessment of Potassium Iodide (KI) Distribution Program Among Communities Within the Emergency Planning Zones (EPZ) of Two Nuclear Power Plants

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate a joint state and local government-sponsored potassium iodide (KI) distribution program in New Jersey. This program is part of a radiological emergency response system for residents living within the Emergency Planning Zones (EPZs) of nuclear power facilities. KI pills and an informational fact sheet were distributed locally at six different public clinics in the summer of 2002. In this study, a mailed survey was developed, pilot tested, and sent to the general public to assess knowledge about KI use. The survey consisted of two groups of people, those who attended a KI distribution clinic and those that did not attend a clinic. There was a statistically significant difference in knowledge among the two groups of survey respondents regarding KI prophylaxis, with a mean of 46% of survey questions answered correctly by those who attended a clinic vs. 15% by those who did not attend. Certain questions were problematic for the public to answer correctly and included potential low compliance with government instructions for taking KI, confusion regarding where the public can obtain KI pills during an emergency, and the lack of awareness on the proper use of KI for children, pregnant women, and persons over the age of 40 y. Additional outreach in these specific areas is warranted. This study also found that there was a highly variable geographic pattern of homes that have a supply of KI pills, with some areas having 60% of the households supplied with pills from the clinic while other areas had as low as 1% of the homes supplied with KI pills.

Reevaluation of the emergency planning zone for nuclear power plants in Taiwan using MACCS2 code

According to government regulations, the emergency planning zone (EPZ) of a nuclear power plant (NPP) must be designated before operation and reevaluated every 5 years. Corresponding emergency response planning (ERP) has to be made in advance to guarantee that all necessary resources are available under accidental releases of radioisotope. In this study, the EPZ for each of the three operating NPPs, Chinshan, Kuosheng, and Maanshan, in Taiwan was reevaluated using the MELCOR Accident Consequence Code System 2 (MACCS2) developed by Sandia National Laboratory. Meteorological data around the nuclear power plant were collected during 2003. The source term data including inventory, sensible heat content, and timing duration, were based on previous PRA information of each plant. The effective dose equivalent and thyroid dose together with the related individual risk and societal risk were calculated. By comparing the results to the protective action guide and related safety criteria, 1.5, 1.5, and 4.5 km were estimated for Chinshan, Kuosheng, and Maanshan NPPs, respectively. We suggest that a radius of 5.0 km is a reasonably conservative value of EPZ for each of the three operating NPPs in Taiwan.

The People and the Plan: Intended Reactions to a Nuclear Emergency in New York State

Nuclear emergency management procedures in the US do not explicitly address the issue of how people might react to a nuclear accident. This question was asked of a sample of residents in the Emergency Planning Zone (EPZ) of the Nine Mile Point nuclear power plant in New York State, using four scenarios designed in collaboration with local county emergency planners. The answers were then compared to the directives likely to be given by the planners. Results show that respondents would follow directives in 48 per cent to 92 per cent of the cases (63 per cent is the average), depending on the scenario used. Predictive factors include attitudes towards nuclear energy and opinions on social issues, while location in the EPZ and socio-demographic characteristics do not play a significant role. Other findings suggest unresolved issues in risk communication strategies and show widespread distrust of the role of the media in the event of an accident.

Information and interaction with the public.

The general requirements of public information are stipulated in EU and IAEA documents. During the emergency exercises Slovenian authorities gained experience how to provide timely and accurate information to the population in the emergency planning zone and to other population in Slovenia. In the future a dialogue should be established between the authorities and the public during an emergency, and not only one-way information flow. The response of the public in relation to the information provided should be constantly monitored and the need for additional information should be addressed without undue delay.

Enhancing Nuclear Emergency Preparedness

On January 31, 2002, Vermont's health commissioner requested potassium iodide (KI) for individuals in the 10-mile Emergency Planning Zone of the nuclear power facility. Vermont's KI distribution program emphasized public information about the role, risks, and benefits of KI. Predistribution ensured that individuals could receive KI in a 0- to 4-hour time period, to provide maximum protection. Five months after the program began, more than 1,000 individuals had received KI, and 3,000-4,000 KI doses have been distributed in schools. Efforts are ongoing to identify barriers to participation, provide public education, and evaluate KI distribution efforts.

Emergency Planning and the Acute Toxic Potency of Inhaled Ammonia

Ammonia is present in agriculture and commerce in many if not most communities. This report evaluates the toxic potency of ammonia, based on three types of data: anecdotal data, in some cases predating World War 1, reconstructions of contemporary industrial accidents, and animal bioassays. Standards and guidelines for human exposure have been driven largely by the anecdotal data, suggesting that ammonia at 5,000-10,000 parts per million, volume/volume (ppm-v), might be lethal within 5-10 min. However, contemporary accident reconstructions suggest that ammonia lethality requires higher concentrations. For example, 33,737 ppm-v was a 5-min zero-mortality value in a major ammonia release in 1973 in South Africa. Comparisons of secondary reports of ammonia lethality with original sources revealed discrepancies in contemporary sources, apparently resulting from failure to examine old documents or accurately translate foreign documents. The present investigation revealed that contemporary accident reconstructions yield ammonia lethality levels comparable to those in dozens of reports of animal bioassays, after adjustment of concentrations to human equivalent concentrations via U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) procedures. Ammonia levels potentially causing irreversible injury or impairing the ability of exposed people to escape from further exposure or from coincident perils similarly have been biased downwardly in contemporary sources. The EPA has identified ammonia as one of 366 extremely hazardous substances subject to community right-to-know provisions of the Superfund Act and emergency planning provisions of the Clean Air Act. The Clean Air Act defines emergency planning zones (EPZs) around industrial facilities exceeding a threshold quantity of ammonia on-site. This study suggests that EPZ areas around ammonia facilities can be reduced, thereby also reducing emergency planning costs, which will vary roughly with the EPZ radius squared.

Emergency planning and the acute toxic potency of inhaled ammonia.

Ammonia is present in agriculture and commerce in many if not most communities. This report evaluates the toxic potency of ammonia, based on three types of data: anecdotal data, in some cases predating World War 1, reconstructions of contemporary industrial accidents, and animal bioassays. Standards and guidelines for human exposure have been driven largely by the anecdotal data, suggesting that ammonia at 5,000-10,000 parts per million, volume/volume (ppm-v), might be lethal within 5-10 min. However, contemporary accident reconstructions suggest that ammonia lethality requires higher concentrations. For example, 33,737 ppm-v was a 5-min zero-mortality value in a major ammonia release in 1973 in South Africa. Comparisons of secondary reports of ammonia lethality with original sources revealed discrepancies in contemporary sources, apparently resulting from failure to examine old documents or accurately translate foreign documents. The present investigation revealed that contemporary accident reconstructions yield ammonia lethality levels comparable to those in dozens of reports of animal bioassays, after adjustment of concentrations to human equivalent concentrations via U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) procedures. Ammonia levels potentially causing irreversible injury or impairing the ability of exposed people to escape from further exposure or from coincident perils similarly have been biased downwardly in contemporary sources. The EPA has identified ammonia as one of 366 extremely hazardous substances subject to community right-to-know provisions of the Superfund Act and emergency planning provisions of the Clean Air Act. The Clean Air Act defines emergency planning zones (EPZs) around industrial facilities exceeding a threshold quantity of ammonia on-site. This study suggests that EPZ areas around ammonia facilities can be reduced, thereby also reducing emergency planning costs, which will vary roughly with the EPZ radius squared.