Elite Middle-distance Runners Research Articles

Unveiling the influence of hip isokinetic strength on lower extremity running kinematics in male national middle-distance runners: a correlational analysis

BackgroundThe relationship between hip strength deficiency in various planes and musculoskeletal injuries within the movement system has been well-established in numerous studies. The present study sought to explore the relationships between hip strength and specific aspects of lower extremity running kinematics.MethodologyTo achieve this objective, the three-dimensional running kinematics of 21 male elite middle-distance runners (mean age: 19.7 ± 1.2 years; mean experience 6.5 ± 1.0 years) were assessed using nine high-speed cameras on a treadmill at a speed of 16 km·h⁻¹. Concurrently, isokinetic hip strength was measured at a speed of 60 deg·s⁻¹ in both the dominant and non-dominant legs. The Pearson correlation coefficient and Paired Samples t-test were utilized.ResultsWhile no significant differences were found in several isokinetic strength measurements, notable differences in running kinematics were observed. Specifically, pelvic drop at midstance (MS) was significantly lower in the DL (5.79 ± 3.00°) compared to the NDL (8.71 ± 1.39°) with a large effect size (t=-4.04, p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.25). Additionally, knee adduction at maximum showed a moderate effect size difference, with the DL at 2.99 ± 1.13° and the NDL at 3.81 ± 1.76° (t=-2.74, p = 0.03, Cohen’s d = 0.55). Results indicated a moderate to highly positive association between running knee adduction in the dominant leg and hip external rotation (r = 0.67, p < 0.05), concentric extension (r = 0.77, p < 0.05), and concentric abduction (r = 0.78, p < 0.05). Additionally, the running tibial external rotation angle in the dominant leg exhibited an inverse relationship with all strength measurements, with statistical significance observed only for concentric extension force (r=-0.68, p < 0.05). Furthermore, hip internal rotation force demonstrated a highly inverse correlation with foot pronation in the dominant leg (r=-0.70, p < 0.05) and anterior pelvic tilt in the non-dominant leg (r=-0.76, p < 0.05).ConclusionsThese findings underscore the interrelation between hip strength and running kinematics, particularly on the dominant side. In light of these observations, it is imperative to consider hip strength exercises as integral components for correcting running kinematics. Coaches should also be mindful that kinematic deviations contributing to running injuries may manifest unilaterally or specifically in the dominant leg.

Hip joint isokinetic muscle strength profiles of elite middle distance runners: a pilot study

The running performance and strength is important for many runners. This study aimed to examine hip joint isokinetic strength profiles of elite middle-distance runners. Nine elite middle-distance runners volunteered to participate in this study. Hip joint isokinetic muscle strength was measured using by an isokinetic dynameters. Participants performed isokinetic tests on dominant and non-dominant legs at a speed of 60°-s-1 for 10 repetitions. Isokinetic tests were conducted to flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and internal/external rotation movements of hip at concentric/concentric mode. There was no significant difference between dominant and non-dominant legs in peak torque and relative peak torque values. When the hip flexors were evaluated bilaterally, it was determined that the non-dominant side produced higher torque than the dominant side. However, in all other movements, the dominant side had higher torque values than the non-dominant side. As a result; on evaluated all joint movements bilaterally, hip flexor/extensor and adductor muscles were in normal values. However, hip abductor and internal/external rotator muscles values were in a risky range.

The study of the impacts of ‘Running’ on the contact area of soles and maximal strength among elite middle distance runners

It is possible that running training for many years in athletics affects athletes' running patterns and sole structure. The main aim of this study is to examine the effect of maximal force applied to the floor area and contact area of the athletes with related to mid-distance training for athletics. 18 male athletes who represent Turkey on the International area and another 25 male volunteers who form the control group from the participants of the study. The sole pressure measurement of the participants was performed through the use of EMED-SF (Novel H, Munich, Germany) plantar pressure analysis system (pedobarographic analysis). In the study, significant differences were found in heel medial, heel lateral, foot middle, 2nd, 3rd and 4th metatars heads and left foot 3rd, 4th, 5th finger in the contact area values of the right and left foot averages. Besides, significant differences were found in heel medial, middle part of feet, 2nd and 3rd metatars heads and 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th fingers in maximal force values. Athletes have pressed on sole of the feet more as a result of long-term training and as a consequence this pressure caused a change of the soles contact area and maximal strength. Also it can be said that they have used forefront part of soles more actively during running and walking.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: runner foot sole, contact area, middle distance, pedobarographic.

Anaerobic Speed Reserve, Sprint Force-Velocity Profile, Kinematic Characteristics, and Jump Ability among Elite Male Speed- and Endurance-Adapted Milers.

This study aimed to compare sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical variables between endurance-adapted milers (EAM, specialized in 1500–3000-m) and speed-adapted milers (SAM, specialized in 800–1500 m) and to examine the relationships between maximal sprint speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical characteristics of elite middle-distance runners. Fifteen participants (8 EAM; 7 SAM) were evaluated to obtain their maximal aerobic speed, sprint mechanical characteristics (force–velocity profile and kinematic variables), jump, and sprint performance. SAM displayed greater MSS, ASR, horizontal jump, sprint performance, and mechanical ability than EAM (p < 0.05). SAM also showed higher stiffness in the 40-m sprint (p = 0.026) and a higher ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF) at 10 m (p = 0.003) and RFpeak (p = 0.024). MSS and ASR correlated with horizontal (r = 0.76) and vertical (r = 0.64) jumps, all sprint split times (r ≤ −0.85), stiffness (r = 0.86), and mechanical characteristics (r ≥ 0.56) during the 100-m sprint, and physical qualities during acceleration (r ≥ 0.66) and sprint mechanical effectiveness from the force–velocity profile (r ≥ 0.69). Season-best times in the 800 m were significantly correlated with MSS (r = −0.86). Sprint ability has a crucial relevance in middle-distance runners’ performance, especially for SAM.

Lower volume throughout the taper and higher intensity in the last interval session prior to a 1500m time trial improves performance.

Eight highly trained middle-distance runners (1500m personal best 4:01.4± 0:09.2min) completed two 7-day tapers, separated by at least 3 weeks of regular training: (i) prescribed using prediction models from elite middle-distance runners, where continuous running volume was reduced by 30% and interval intensity was equal to 1500m race pace (RP); and (ii) continuous running volume was reduced by 60% and intensity of the final interval session was completed at 110% of 1500m race pace (HI). Performance was assessed using 1500m time trials on an indoor 200m track 1 day before, and 1 day after each taper. Performance time was improved after HI by 5.2± 3.7s (mean± 90% confidence limits, p= 0.03) and by 3.2± 3.8s after RP (p= 0.15). The first and second 300m segments of the 1500m time trial were faster post-taper in RP (p= 0.012 and p= 0.017, respectively) and HI (both p= 0.012). Running faster than race pace late in a low-volume taper is recommended to improve 1500m track performance. A positive pacing strategy is adopted after tapering, although care should be taken to avoid an over-fast start. Novelty: A large reduction in volume during tapering and an increase in final interval session intensity improves running performance. Athletes adopt a negative pacing strategy before tapering and a positive-pacing strategy after tapering.

Bouncing behavior of sub-four minute milers

Elite middle distance runners present as a unique population in which to explore biomechanical phenomena in relation to running speed, as their training and racing spans a broad spectrum of paces. However, there have been no comprehensive investigations of running mechanics across speeds within this population. Here, we used the spring-mass model of running to explore global mechanical behavior across speeds in these runners. Ten elite-level 1500 m and mile runners (mean 1500 m best: 3:37.3 ± 3.6 s; mile: 3:54.6 ± 3.9 s) and ten highly trained 1500 m and mile runners (mean 1500 m best: 4:07.6 ± 3.7 s; mile: 4:27.4 ± 4.1 s) ran on a treadmill at 10 speeds where temporal measures were recorded. Spatiotemporal and spring-mass characteristics and their corresponding variation were calculated within and across speeds. All spatiotemporal measures changed with speed in both groups, but the changes were less substantial in the elites. The elite runners ran with greater approximated vertical forces (+ 0.16 BW) and steeper impact angles (+ 3.1°) across speeds. Moreover, the elites ran with greater leg and vertical stiffnesses (+ 2.1 kN/m and + 3.6 kN/m) across speeds. Neither group changed leg stiffness with increasing speeds, but both groups increased vertical stiffness (1.6 kN/m per km/h), and the elite runners more so (further + 0.4 kN/m per km/h). The elite runners also demonstrated lower variability in their spatiotemporal behavior across speeds. Together, these findings suggested that elite middle distance runners may have distinct global mechanical patterns across running speeds, where they behave as stiffer, less variable spring-mass systems compared to highly trained, but sub-elite counterparts.

‘It has to hurt’: A phenomenological analysis of elite runners´ experiences in handling non-injuring running-related pain

ABSTRACT Running can be a painful endeavour. In this article, we focus on four elite middle-distance runners’ experience of non-injuring running-related pain, with the aim of better understanding how their handling of pain is a part of their expertise as elite athletes competing on an international level. The article employs phenomenological clarifications of bodily self-consciousness and pain in the analysis of an ethnographic fieldwork carried out during four months in a Danish elite middle-distance training group. The first author’s background in competitive running enabled him to draw on his own ‘insider’ experiences as a runner to perform participant-observations and facilitate rich descriptions in both formal and informal interviews. The analysis indicates that a large part of the runners’ training and racing relied on three overarching ways of handling pain. The runners possess a familiarity in dealing with the ‘acidic’ pain experienced during short intervals and races, they ‘shuffle’ with pain in order to enhance their performance, and they persistently ascribe context-dependant meaning to the experienced pain of running. Importantly, the runners continuously draw on this nuanced familiarity of their pained runner´s bodies while practicing and competing. We suggest that these ways of handling running-related pain can be understood as integral to their expertise as elite runners.

Erratum: Sandford et al (2019).

In the article Sandford GN, Rogers SA, Sharma AP, Kilding AE, Ross A, Laursen PB. Implementing anaerobic speed reserve testing in the field: validation of vVO2max prediction from 1500-m race performance in elite middle-distance runners. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2019;14(8):1147–1150, https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0553, Tables 1A and 1B were not included. The online version of this article has been corrected.

Implementing Anaerobic Speed Reserve Testing in the Field: Validation of vVO2max Prediction From 1500-m Race Performance in Elite Middle-Distance Runners.

Anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), defined as the speed range from velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max) to maximal sprint speed, has recently been shown to be an important tool for middle-distance coaches to meet event surge demands and inform on the complexity of athlete profiles. To enable field application of ASR, the relationship between gun-to-tape 1500-m average speed (1500v) and the vVO2max for the determination of lower landmark of the ASR was assessed in elite middle-distance runners. A total of 8 national and 4 international middle-distance runners completed a laboratory-measured vVO2max assessment within 6 wk of a nonchampionship 1500-m gun-to-tape race. ASR was calculated using both laboratory-derived vVO2max (ASR-LAB) and 1500v (ASR-1500v), with maximal sprint speed measured using radar technology. 1500v was on average +2.06 ± 1.03km/h faster than vVO2max (moderate effect, very likely). ASR-LAB and ASR-1500v mean differences were -2.1 ± 1.5km/h (large effect, very likely). 1500v showed an extremely large relationship with vVO2max, r = .90 ± .12 (most likely). Using this relationship, a linear-regression vVO2max-estimation equation was derived as vVO2max (km/h) = (1500v[km/h] - 14.921)/0.4266. A moderate difference was evident between 1500v and vVO2max in elite middle-distance runners. The present regression equation should be applied for an accurate field prediction of vVO2max from 1500-m gun-to-tape races. These findings have strong practical implications for coaches lacking access to a sports physiology laboratory who seek to monitor and profile middle-distance runners.

Different psychophysiological responses to a high-intensity repetition session performed alone or in a group by elite middle-distance runners

Internal training load refers to the degree of disturbance in psychophysiological homeostasis provoked by a training session and has been traditionally measured through session-RPE, which is the product of the session Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the duration. External training load refers to the actual physical work completed, and depends on session volume, intensity, frequency and density. Drafting, which is achieved by running closely behind another runner has been demonstrated to reduce the energy cost of running at a fixed speed and to improve performance. Therefore, it is hypothesised that psychophysiological responses might reflect different levels of internal load if training is performed individually or collectively. 16 elite middle-distance runners performed two high-intensity training sessions consisting of 4 repetitions of 500 m separated by 3 min of passive recovery. Sessions were performed individually and collectively. Times for each repetition, RPE, core affect (valence and felt arousal) and blood lactate concentrations [BLa] were measured after each repetition. Main time effect was significant and increased across repetitions for [BLa] and RPE (p < 0.001), and decreased for valence (p = 0.001). Main group effect was significant and values were higher when training individually for [BLa] (p = 0.003) and RPE (p = 0.001), and lower for valence (p = 0.001). No differential responses were found between conditions in terms of repeat time or felt arousal. Findings demonstrate that elite middle-distance athletes running collectively display lower levels of internal training load compared to running alone, despite external training load being similar.

Contemporary Nutrition Interventions to Optimize Performance in Middle-Distance Runners.

Middle-distance runners utilize the full continuum of energy systems throughout training, and given the infinite competition tactical scenarios, this event group is highly complex from a performance intervention point of view. However, this complexity results in numerous potential periodized nutrition interventions to optimize middle-distance training adaptation and competition performance. Middle-distance race intensity is extreme, with 800- to 5,000-m races being at ∼95% to 130% of VO2max. Accordingly, elite middle-distance runners have primarily Type IIa/IIx fiber morphology and rely almost exclusively on carbohydrate (primarily muscle glycogen) metabolic pathways for producing adenosine triphosphate. Consequently, the principle nutritional interventions that should be emphasized are those that optimize muscle glycogen contents to support high glycolytic flux (resulting in very high lactate values, of >20mmol/L in some athletes) with appropriate buffering capabilities, while optimizing power to weight ratios, all in a macro- and microperiodized manner. From youth to elite level, middle-distance athletes have arduous racing schedules (10-25 races/year), coupled with excessive global travel, which can take a physical and emotional toll. Accordingly, proactive and integrated nutrition planning can have a profound recovery effect over a long race season, as well as optimizing recovery during rounds of championship racing. Finally, with evidence-based implementation and an appropriate risk/reward assessment, several ergogenic aids may have an adaptive and/or performance-enhancing effect in the middle-distance athlete. Given that elite middle-distance athletes undertake ∼400 to 800 training sessions with 10-25 races/year, there are countless opportunities to implement various periodized acute and chronic nutrition-based interventions to optimize performance.

Effects of an increase in intensity during tapering on 1500-m running performance.

We examined the effect of completing the final interval training session during a taper at either (i) race pace (RP) or (ii) faster than RP on 1500-m running performance and neuromuscular performance. Ten trained runners (age, 21.7 ± 3.0 years; height, 182.9 ± 7.0 cm; body mass, 73.4 ± 6.8 kg; and personal best 1500-m time, 4:17.5 ± 0:26.9 min) completed 2 conditions consisting of 7 days of regular training and a 7-day taper, separated by 3 weeks of training. In 1 condition, the taper was prescribed using prediction models based on the practices of elite British middle-distance runners, with the intensity of the final interval session being equal to 1500-m RP. The taper was repeated in the high-intensity (HI) condition, with the exception that the final interval session was completed at 115% of 1500-m RP. A 1500-m treadmill time trial and measures of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and rate of force development (RFD) were completed before and after regular training and tapering. Performance was most likely improved after RP (mean ± 90% confidence limits, 10.1 ± 1.6 s), and possibly beneficial after HI (4.2 ± 12.0 s). Both MVC force (p = 0.002) and RFD (p = 0.02) were improved after tapering, without differences between conditions. An RP taper based on the practices of elite middle-distance runners is recommended to improve performance in young, subelite runners. The effect of this strategy with an increase in interval intensity is highly variable and should be implemented with caution.

The Acute Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Serum Cortisol Levels of Athletes and Sedentary Individuals

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of post-challenge acute values of serum cortisol levels in elite and sedentary athletes before aerobic exercise. This study included 22 elite middle-distance runners from various clubs around Turkey and 16 voluntary non-athlete men. The Cooper test was applied to study subjects. Heart rate values and blood samples of the subjects were taken before and after the Cooper test. The blood samples were analyzed at Central Biochemistry Laboratory of Şahinbey Research and Application Hospital of Gaziantep University. The results showed statistically significant difference between sedentary and athlete groups in comparison of BMI (P&lt;0.05). A statistically significant difference was also found in pre-exercise cortisol and potassium levels and post-exercise lactate and potassium levels between both groups (P&lt;0.05). No statistically significant difference was detected between groups in comparison of other blood parameters (P&gt;0.05). Again, no statistically significant difference was found between pre-test and post-test values of pre and post-exercise Cortisol and Potassium levels of both groups (P&gt;0.05).Consequently, cortisol levels were same in both groups and were not affected by exercise. According to these results, it can be said that athletes’ volume of air entering the lungs is higher than those who do not do sports, and the level of their anaerobic respiration is lower.

The Effect of Training at 2100-m Altitude on Running Speed and Session Rating of Perceived Exertion at Different Intensities in Elite Middle-Distance Runners.

To determine the effect of training at 2100-m natural altitude on running speed (RS) during training sessions over a range of intensities relevant to middle-distance running performance. In an observational study, 19 elite middle-distance runners (mean ± SD age 25 ± 5 y, VO2max, 71 ± 5 mL · kg-1 · min-1) completed either 4-6 wk of sea-level training (CON, n = 7) or a 4- to 5-wk natural altitude-training camp living at 2100 m and training at 1400-2700 m (ALT, n = 12) after a period of sea-level training. Each training session was recorded on a GPS watch, and athletes also provided a score for session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). Training sessions were grouped according to duration and intensity. RS (km/h) and sRPE from matched training sessions completed at sea level and 2100 m were compared within ALT, with sessions completed at sea level in CON describing normal variation. In ALT, RS was reduced at altitude compared with sea level, with the greatest decrements observed during threshold- and VO2max-intensity sessions (5.8% and 3.6%, respectively). Velocity of low-intensity and race-pace sessions completed at a lower altitude (1400 m) and/or with additional recovery was maintained in ALT, though at a significantly greater sRPE (P = .04 and .05, respectively). There was no change in velocity or sRPE at any intensity in CON. RS in elite middle-distance athletes is adversely affected at 2100-m natural altitude, with levels of impairment dependent on the intensity of training. Maintenance of RS at certain intensities while training at altitude can result in a higher perceived exertion.

Features of adaptation to the middle altitude conditions in elite middle distance runners depening on the type of vegetative homoeostasis

Features of adaptation to the middle altitude conditions in elite middle distance runners depening on the type of vegetative homoeostasis

Genetic Profiles and Prediction of the Success of Young Athletes’ Transition from Middle- to Long-Distance Runs: An Exploratory Study

The aim of the study was to assess whether an aerobic-favoring genetic profile can predict the success of a shift from middle- to long-distance running. Thirteen elite middle-distance runners were divided into successful and nonsuccessful groups in their shift toward long-distance runs. All the runners began their training program at the age of 14-15, and after 6-7 years, changed focus and adjusted their training program to fit longer running distances. The participants' personal records in the longer events were set at the age of 25-27, about 3-5 years after the training readjustment took place. The endurance genetic score based on 9 polymorphisms was computed as the endurance genetic distance score (EGDS9). The power genetic distance score (PGDS5) was computed based on 5 power-related genetic polymorphisms. The mean EGDS9 was significantly higher among the successful group than the nonsuccessful group (37.1 and 23.3, respectively, p < .005, effect size 0.75), while the mean PGDS5 was not statistically different between the 2 groups (p = .13). Our findings suggest the possible use of genetic profiles as an added tool for determining appropriate competitive transition and specialization in young athletes involved in early phases of talent development.

Rebuttal from Mounier and Brugniaux

Point:CounterpointRebuttal from Mounier and BrugniauxPublished Online:15 May 2012https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00067.2012cMoreSectionsPDF (39 KB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInEmailWeChat By arguing for major physiological differences between normobaric (NH) and hypobaric (HH) hypoxia, Millet al. (7) are indirectly pleading for “real altitude” as the gold standard. In our opinion, hypobaric chambers represent nothing more than another (inaccurate?) model, inasmuch as real altitude involves more physiological constraints than simply a reduction in barometric pressure (PB). For instance, Mairbaurl et al. (6) demonstrated that the air dryness occurring at altitude could be misleading in the interpretation of the alterations in the alveolar epithelium.It is interesting to note that Millet et al. (7) also decided to highlight acute mountain sickness and preacclimatization as a point of debate in their argument. However, we have a completely different interpretation of the literature they cited. Essentially, the dose of hypoxia used by Beidleman et al. (1) during their preacclimatization is fundamentally different to what Fulco et al. (4) used (60 h at 4,300 m vs. 525 h at 2,200–3,100 m). We, therefore, argue that more than the changes in PB per se and fewer hours spent at a much lower altitude account for the discrepancy between these two studies. This is a clear illustration of the difficulties in interpreting the available literature, thus warranting further research.On the basis of our original contribution (8), the notion that the erythropoietin response is driven by changes in oxygen pressure (Po2) rather than PB is not subject of debate, which would tend to temper the alleged lack of efficiency of the normobaric living high-training low regimen (nLHTL). As a matter of fact, our group actually demonstrated a clear increase in both O2 carrying capacity and performance in elite athletes using nLHTL (2).Furthermore, the data presented by Millet al. (7) relating to nitric oxide (NO) and fluid balance are not convincing. For instance, the work from Hemmingsson and Linnarsson (5) has triggered heated discussions regarding the validity of the measurements, thus prompting us to the greatest caution regarding the interpretation of their results. Regarding fluid balance, Fall et al. (3) recently demonstrated in NH the role played by exercise and hypoxia on contracting plasma volume, independently of increased diuresis.All in all, although we acknowledge possible marginal differences between HH and NH, we stand by our point arguing that O2 sensing-related physiological adaptations are driven by Po2. However, based on existing gaps in the literature, we think more studies comparing the two models, especially those involving longer exposures, are required.REFERENCES1. Beidleman BA , Muza SR , Fulco CS , Cymerman A , Ditzler D , Stulz D , Staab JE , Skrinar GS , Lewis SF , Sawka MN. Intermittent altitude exposures reduce acute mountain sickness at 4300 m. Clin Sci (Lond) 106: 321–328, 2004.Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar2. Brugniaux JV , Schmitt L , Robach P , Nicolet G , Fouillot JP , Moutereau S , Lasne F , Pialoux V , Saas P , Chorvot MC , Cornolo J , Olsen NV , Richalet JP. Eighteen days of “living high, training low” stimulate erythropoiesis and enhance aerobic performance in elite middle-distance runners. J Appl Physiol 100: 203–211, 2006.Link | ISI | Google Scholar3. Fall L , Evans KA , Lewis MH , Bailey DM. Haemostatic response to hypoxaemic/exercise stress: the dilemma of plasma volume correction. J Clin Pathol 64: 269–271, 2011.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar4. Fulco CS , Muza SR , Beidleman BA , Demes R , Staab JE , Jones JE , Cymerman A. Effect of repeated normobaric hypoxia exposures during sleep on acute mountain sickness, exercise performance, and sleep during exposure to terrestrial altitude. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 300: R428–R436, 2011.Link | ISI | Google Scholar5. Hemmingsson T , Linnarsson D. Lower exhaled nitric oxide in hypobaric than in normobaric acute hypoxia. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 169: 74–77, 2009.Crossref | ISI | Google Scholar6. Mairbaurl H , Weymann J , Mohrlein A , Swenson ER , Maggiorini M , Gibbs JS , Bartsch P. Nasal epithelium potential difference at high altitude (4,559 m): evidence for secretion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167: 862–867, 2003.Crossref | PubMed | ISI | Google Scholar7. Millet GP , Faiss R , Pialoux V. Point: Hypobaric hypoxia induces different physiological responses from normobaric hypoxia. J Appl Physiol; 10.1152/japplphysiol.00067.2012.ISI | Google Scholar8. Mounier R , Brugniaux JV. Counterpoint: Hypobaric hypoxia does not induce different physiological responses from normobaric hypoxia. J Appl Physiol; 10.1152/japplphysiol.00067a.2012.ISI | Google Scholar Download PDF Previous Back to Top Next FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation More from this issue > Volume 112Issue 10May 2012Pages 1787-1787 Copyright & PermissionsCopyright © 2012 the American Physiological Societyhttps://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00067.2012cPubMed22589491History Published online 15 May 2012 Published in print 15 May 2012 Metrics

Physiological determinants of speciality of elite middle- and long-distance runners

The aim of this study was to determine which physiological variables predict excellence in middle- and long-distance runners. Forty middle-distance runners (age 23 ± 4 years, body mass 67.2 ± 5.9 kg, stature 1.80 ± 0.05 m, [Vdot]O2max 65.9 ± 4.5 ml · kg−1 · min−1) and 32 long-distance runners (age 25 ± 4 years, body mass 59.8 ± 5.1 kg, stature 1.73 ± 0.06 m, [Vdot]O2max 71.6 ± 5.0 ml · kg−1 · min−1) competing at international standard performed an incremental running test to exhaustion. Expired gas analysis was performed breath-by-breath and maximum oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2max) and two ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) were calculated. Long-distance runners presented a higher [Vdot]O2max than middle-distance runners when expressed relative to body mass (P < 0.001, d = 1.18, 95% CI [0.68, 1.68]). At the intensities corresponding to VT1 and VT2, long-distance runners showed higher values for [Vdot]O2 expressed relative to body mass or %[Vdot]O2max, speed and oxygen cost of running (P < 0.05). When oxygen uptake was adjusted for body mass, differences between groups were consistent. Logistic binary regression analysis showed that [Vdot]O2max (expressed as l · min−1 and ml · kg−1 · min−1), [Vdot]O2VT2 (expressed as ml · kg−0.94 · min−1), and speed at VT2 (v VT2) categorized long-distance runners. In addition, the multivariate model correctly classified 84.7% of the athletes. Thus, [Vdot]O2max, [Vdot]O2VT2, and v VT2 discriminate between elite middle-distance and long-distance runners.

Improved Race Performance in Elite Middle-Distance Runners After Cumulative Altitude Exposure

We quantified the effect of an extended live high-train low (LHTL) simulated altitude exposure followed by a series of training camps at natural moderate altitude on competitive performance in seven elite middle-distance runners (Vo2max 71.4 +/- 3.4 mL.min-1.kg-1, mean +/- SD). Runners spent 44 +/- 7 nights (mean +/- SD) at a simulated altitude of 2846 +/- 32 m, and a further 4 7- to 10-d training at natural moderate altitude (1700-2200 m) before racing. The combination of simulated LHTL and natural altitude training improved competitive performance by 1.9% (90% confidence limits, 1.3-2.5%). Middle-distance runners can confidently use a combination of simulated and natural altitude to stimulate adaptations responsible for improving performance.

Improved running economy and increased hemoglobin mass in elite runners after extended moderate altitude exposure

There is conflicting evidence whether hypoxia improves running economy (RE), maximal O(2) uptake (V(O)(2max)), haemoglobin mass (Hb(mass)) and performance, and what total accumulated dose is necessary for effective adaptation. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of an extended hypoxic exposure on these physiological and performance measures. Nine elite middle distance runners were randomly assigned to a live high-train low simulated altitude group (ALT) and spent 46+/-8 nights (mean+/-S.D.) at 2860+/-41m. A matched control group (CON, n=9) lived and trained near sea level ( approximately 600m). ALT decreased submaximal V(O)(2) (Lmin(-1)) (-3.2%, 90% confidence intervals, -1.0% to -5.2%, p=0.02), increased Hb(mass) (4.9%, 2.3-7.6%, p=0.01), decreased submaximal heart rate (-3.1%, -1.8% to -4.4%, p=0.00) and had a trivial increase in V(O)(2max) (1.5%, -1.6 to 4.8; p=0.41) compared with CON. There was a trivial correlation between change in Hb(mass) and change in V(O)(2max) (r=0.04, p=0.93). Hypoxic exposure of approximately 400h was sufficient to improve Hb(mass), a response not observed with shorter exposures. Although total O(2) carrying capacity was improved, the mechanism(s) to explain the lack of proportionate increase in V(O)(2max) were not identified.