Elite Athletes Research Articles

Relationship between visual ability assessment and punch performance in competition in male amateur boxers.

Sport visual ability plays an important role in the performance of elite athletes in competition. However, its relationship with boxers' performance has not been fully understood. This study investigated the relationship between sports visual abilities and in-competition punching performance in 26 highly trained male amateur boxers. Ten visual abilities of the boxers were tested using the Senaptec Sensory Station (Senaptec, Beaverton, OR, United States), including Visual Clarity (VC), Contrast Sensitivity (CS), Depth Perception (DP), Near Far Quickness (NFQ), Target Capture (TC), Perception Span (PS), Multiple Object Tracking (MOT), Eye-Hand Coordination (EHC), Go/No Go (GNG), and Reaction Time (RT). Performance analyses were conducted on national boxing championships conducted by the boxers to analyze their punching accuracy. Correlation and regression analyses showed that punch performance %Hit was very strong correlated with DP, EHC, GNG, and RT, and showed a strong correlation with VC, CS, and PS. %Hit was moderate correlated with MOT, while there was no correlation with NFQ and TC. In addition, RT, EHC, and DP are important visual ability variables for boxers. The results of this study indicate that there is an overall relationship between sports visual ability and boxing performance, but there is also a specific relationship between variables in visual ability and boxing performance, especially faster reaction times, better processing of visual information, and decision-making abilities, and the ability to accurately recognize the distance and position of an opponent and their punches are essential for enhancing boxing performance. Further studies are needed to investigate the relationship between sport visual ability and more comprehensive performance in boxers, and the possibility of enhancing performance through specific visual training.

Ligament augmentation and reconstruction system (LARS) synthetic grafts are safe and effective for medial collateral ligament and posterolateral corner reconstructions in elite athletes.

This study documents the efficacy and safety of using a Ligament Augmentation and Reconstruction System (LARS) ligament graft to augment extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions in elite athletes by reporting return-to-play(RTP) rates and levels, career longevityand complications. A consecutive series of all extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions augmented by LARS ligaments in elite athletes undertaken by three specialist sports knee surgeons between 2013 and 2020 were reviewed. Seventy-six elite athletes, aged over 16 years old, and more than 2 years postsurgery were included. RTPwas defined as competing at professional levelor national/international level in amateur sport. There were 64 medial collateral ligament (MCL) and 12 posterolateral corner (PLC) reconstructions. Fifty-two (68.4%) underwent concomitant autograft cruciate ligament(s) reconstruction. The mean age was 25.1 years (SD ± 4.5). Most were football (35, 46.1%) or rugby players (35, 46.1%). Sixty-seven athletes (88.2%) RTP with 65 (97.0%) of these playing at the same or higher Tegner level. Fifty-six (83.6%) of the athletes that RTP were still playing at 2 years postsurgery. Twenty (57.1%) of those who had RTP and were more than 5 years postsurgery were still playing at 5 years. Six (7.9%) players required further surgery relating to the LARS/metalwork. One case had soft tissue inflammation adjacent to the proximal end of the synthetic graft, but it is unknown if this was mechanical irritation or a biological reaction. One MCL reruptured 4 years after RTP. Utilising LARS to augment extra-articular knee ligament reconstructions allows 88.2% of athletes with a variety of knee ligament injuries to return to elite sport. The low morbidity rates coupled with 57% of athletes still playing 5 years postsurgery demonstrates that the LARS is safe and effective in these cases. Although there are reports of LARS ligaments being used in MCL and PLC reconstructions, there is very little evidence investigating if they are safe and effective. This study demonstrates that LARS synthetic grafts can be safely used for MCL and PLC reconstructions in elite athletes and they permit a high RTP with a low risk of complications. Level IV.

Kavalactones support motivation to move during intensive training in males preparing for military special operations forces.

Military special operators, elite athletes, and others requiring uninterrupted optimal performance currently lack options for sleep and mood support without performance-inhibiting effects. Kavalactones, derived from the root of the kava plant (Piper methysticum Forst), have been shown to elevate mood and wellbeing by producing a feeling of relaxation without addiction or cognitive impairment. In this placebo-controlled, crossover study (NCT05381025), we investigated the effects of 2 weeks of kavalactones use on cortisol (diurnal salivary), sleep (RSQ-W; Restorative Sleep Questionnaire, Weekly), mood (DASS-21; Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21), and motivation state to expend (Move) or conserve (Rest) energy (CRAVE; Cravings for Rest and Volitional Energy Expenditure, Right Now) in a cohort of 15 healthy, physically fit young males engaged in a rigorous, two-a-day preparation class for special operations forces qualification. Cortisol, sleep, and mood were within normal, healthy parameters in this cohort at baseline. This remained unchanged with kavalactones use with no significant findings of clinical interest. However, a statistically similar, positive slope for within-group Move scores was seen in both groups during kavalactones loading (first group Move slope 2.25, second group Move slope 3.29, p = 0.299). This trend was seen regardless of order and with no apparent effects on the Rest metric (all p ≥ 0.05). Moreover, a significant between-group difference appeared after 1 week of kavalactones use in the first phase (p = 0.044) and persisted through the end of the first loading period (p = 0.022). Following the 10-day washout, this between-groups divergence remained significant (p = 0.038) but was reversed by 1 week after the crossover (p = 0.072), with Move scores once again statistically similar between groups and compared to baseline at study end. Furthermore, the group taking kavalactones first never experienced a significant decrease in Move motivation state (lowest mean score 21.0, highest 28.6, all p ≥ 0.05), while the group receiving kavalactones in the last 2 weeks of the study had Move scores that were statistically lower than baseline (lowest mean score 8.6, highest 25.9, all p ≤ 0.05) at all time points but the last (p = 0.063) after 2 weeks of kavalactones exposure. We report a novel finding that kavalactones may support performance by maintaining or rescuing the desire to expend energy in the context of significant physical and mental strain in well-conditioned individuals, even in a context of already normal cortisol, sleep, and mood.

Dual-task costs in speed tasks: a comparison between elite ice hockey, open-skill and closed-skill sports athletes.

Ice hockey is a high pace sports game that requires players to integrate multiple skills. Players face perceptive, cognitive, and motor tasks concurrently; hence, players are regularly exposed to dual- or multi-task demands. Dual-tasking has been shown to lead to decreased performance in one or both performed tasks. The degree of performance reductions might be modulated by the exhaustion of cognitive resources. Literature on dual-task paradigms that combine sport-relevant elements is scarce. Therefore, a novel paradigm combining cyclical speed of the lower extremities and concurrent visuo-verbal speed reading was tested and validated. Additionally, to understand the nature of dual-task costs, the relationship between these costs and cognitive performance was assessed. We hypothesized occurrence of dual-task costs in all athletes without relationship to single task performance. Differences in dual-task cost were expected between open-skill and closed-skill sports, as well as differing expertise levels. Level of cognitive function was expected to explain some variance in dual-task cost. A total of 322 elite athletes (120 ice hockey, 165 other team sports, 37 closed-skill sports) participated in this study. Each athlete performed a tapping task, a visuo-verbal speed-reading task, and both tasks simultaneously. All ice hockey athletes performed additional cognitive tests assessing processing speed, spatial working memory, sustained attention, two choice reaction time, and motor inhibition. The results of paired-sample t-tests confirmed significant dual-task costs for all sport groups (p < 0.001). Single-task performance and dual-task costs correlated weakly in a positive direction. A one-way ANOVA revealed significantly greater costs in closed-skill sports athletes than in ice hockey and other sports athletes. No significant differences in dual-task costs were found between teams of differing expertise levels. Lastly, no significant regression model was found to predict dual-task costs from cognitive test performance. Our study suggests that this novel dual-task paradigm was successful in inducing dual-task costs for all elite athletes. Since it distinguishes between closed-skill and open-skill sports athletes, it might be a valuable diagnostic tool for performance and for talent development of open-skill athletes. Dual-task costs could not be relevantly predicted via cognitive performance measures, questioning cognitive resource theories as an explanation for dual-task costs.

Sleep and mental health of current and retired athletes across playing status and level of competition

Sleep and mental health problems are common in athletic cohorts; however, our knowledge is limited to current, elite athletes. We attempted to compare the symptomology of sleep and mental health problems across different playing statuses and competition levels. An online survey was completed by 946 adults from 37 sports (52.3% women) in seven countries. Athletes were currently competing, retired from competition (&lt;20 years ago), or temporarily unable to play (i.e. injury/season postponed), from all competition levels. Retired athletes were at greater risk of sleep disordered breathing than current athletes (OR=2.30, 95% CI[1.66,3.20]) and those unable to play (OR=1.83, 95% CI[1.07,3.13]. Retired athletes (OR=1.54, 95% CI[1.11,2.15]) and those unable to play (OR=2.15, 95% CI[1.36,3.39]) were at greater risk of compromised wellbeing than current athletes. Sports institute/university/college level and semi-professional athletes were at greater risk of anxiety than professional athletes (OR=2.82, 95% CI[1.29, 6.17]; OR=2.38, 95% CI[1.10, 5.16]), respectively. Current and retired athletes had comparable risk of sleep difficulty, depression, and anxiety, while retired athletes were at the greatest risk for sleep apnoea, reflecting previous literature. Foreclosure of sport may explain reduced wellbeing in retired and temporarily unable to compete athletes. Emerging athletes were at elevated risk for depression and anxiety, with distinct barriers and stressors to elite athletes. The high risk prevalence observed has significant implications for the assessment and identification of sleep and mental health issues in athletic populations, highlighting the importance of intervention and prevention strategies. Findings underscore the necessity for longitudinal research, increased transparency from sporting organisations, and enhanced support during and beyond athletic careers.

Seeing the unseen boundary behind you: Predicting the out-of-bounds of flick serves in playing badminton doubles

Previous research on affordance perception has shown that elite athletes can relate the environmental features to their motor abilities to detect the opportunities for action. In playing badminton doubles, experienced players can often anticipate whether a flick serve will go out-of-bounds or not. A field study was performed to examine if such an ability was associated with a developed affordance perception. Twenty-two players with and without badminton playing experience were asked to play a receiver on court to judge without looking back whether a flick serve was out-of-bounds in both standing and retreating conditions. Forty flick serves were randomly delivered to either inner or outer rear corner of the receiver’s box and land adjacent to the back service line. Each player’s ability to reach high and retreat backward with a racquet was assessed on court. The results showed that predictions were better in the inner direction than the outer direction, but experienced players were more sensitive and conservative overall. Playing experience appeared to be a consistent predictor for judgment accuracy. In identifying the affordance information that could have been utilized by players for accurate predictions, only experienced players demonstrated the ability to utilize both body-scaled and action-scaled affordances effectively and reliably for better predictions in both standing and retreating conditions.

Comparative single-cell transcriptional and proteomic atlas of clinical-grade injectable mesenchymal source tissues.

Bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) and adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (ADSVF) are the most marketed stem cell therapies to treat a variety of conditions in the general population and elite athletes. Both tissues have been used interchangeably clinically even though their detailed composition, heterogeneity, and mechanisms of action have neither been rigorously inventoried nor compared. This lack of information has prevented investigations into ideal dosages and has facilitated anecdata and misinformation. Here, we analyzed single-cell transcriptomes, proteomes, and flow cytometry profiles from paired clinical-grade BMAC and ADSVF. This comparative transcriptional atlas challenges the prevalent notion that there is one therapeutic cell type present in both tissues. We also provide data of surface markers that may enable isolation and investigation of cell (sub)populations. Furthermore, the proteome atlas highlights intertissue and interpatient heterogeneity of injected proteins with potentially regenerative or immunomodulatory capacities. An interactive webtool is available online.

ENGLISH

Currently, the studies that have been carried out on sports injuries are mostly focused on physical factors as the main cause; however, empirical evidence shows the importance of psychological factors. Therefore, we must focus on identifying the most relevant variables surrounding sports injuries, that is, those that can influence their appearance and/or rehabilitation. Mental health disorders have become one of the most relevant problems today, and with it, the risk of suffering an injury is increasing. The objective of the present study is to carry out a systematic review of the scientific literature to know which mental health indicators are the most common in relation to sports injuries in elite athletes. A systematic review of the scientific literature will be carried out in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. For this purpose, various databases have been used, such as: Scopus, Scielo, ResearchGate, MedlinePlus, Dialnet and Google Scholar. The selected documents were 6, all of them review articles published between 2016 and 2022. The results indicate that: there is a relationship between mental health and sports injuries; the prevalence of mental health symptoms in sport increases the risk of injury and delays rehabilitation; the number of injuries negatively affects the athlete’s mental health; Injuries can increase the risk of mental health problems and adverse behaviors. In conclusion, this review shows how mental health indicators are significantly related to sports injuries, and how their relationship can lead to incorrect recovery for the athlete and/or being more exposed to suffering from it.

Suicidal ideation among Chinese national team elite athletes

The present study reveals the subjective experiences of suicidal ideation among Chinese national team athletes. The two objectives were to situate the experiences of athletes’ suicidal ideation and to identify the common features of athletes’ suicidal ideation and their coping strategies in the Chinese sport system. Following a critical realist framework, 10 national team athletes were purposively recruited to share their experiences of suicidal ideation as they progressed in their national teams through in-depth semi-structured interviews. A reflexive thematic analysis followed by composite vignettes were undertaken to provide a rich description of suicidal ideation in relation to the athletes’ progressive careers. Three composite vignettes were generated: (a) suicidal ideation resulting from early overtraining, (b) difficulty in adjusting to a highly competitive environment post-transition, and (c) competition failures among established athletes. The manifestations, durations, reactions, and coping strategies of suicidal ideations varied as the athletes progressed in their careers. Age, athletic performance, social support, medal-orientation, and collectivism contributed to suicidal ideation.

Methods of non-invasive electrocardiology in the detection of myocardial damage after COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in young elite athletes

Methods of non-invasive electrocardiology in the detection of myocardial damage after COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in young elite athletes

ENGLISH

The main cause of injury in athletes is of muscular origin and of all those of the hamstrings it is the most important. The inadequate eccentric strength of these is a factor that is related to lower limb injuries. At the Sports Science Center of the Ministry of Sports, the eccentric strength of the hamstrings is evaluated with the Nordic test. In Colombia, it is not known if this is related to lower limb injuries in the different world-class high-performance athletes who attend there. A descriptive work was proposed with a quantitative approach and analytical phase, evaluating the pre-participation medical records of 195 athletes who underwent the Nordic test during the year 2021. The athletes analyzed were 56% men, with ages for both sexes on average of 21.5 years, with body mass indexes of approximately 22.1 k/m2. The most frequent injury to the lower limbs was muscle (38.5%), followed by tendinopathies (27%). Of the muscle, the hamstrings were injured in 69%. An average maximum force was found for all athletes of 292.4 ± 67.06 N and a relative force of 4.52 ± 1 N/kg. The bivariate analyzes show an association between the presence of injury and lower maximum eccentric hamstring strength for both sexes. Furthermore, it was found that asymmetries less than 15% of the maximum eccentric hamstring strength were associated with a lower presence of injury. From a multivariate analysis, normative reference curves were constructed for weight, sex, and maximum eccentric strength of these athletes. It contributes to the conceptual gap of the behavior of eccentric hamstring strength and its relationship with the presence of lower limb injuries in different Colombian elite athletes.

Effect of aquatic versus conventional physical therapy program on ankle sprain grade III in elite athletes: randomized controlled trial

IntroductionAnkle sprains are the second most common sports injury after knee injuries, with about 85% of them affecting the lateral ankle ligaments. These injuries are particularly prevalent in sports like basketball and volleyball.PurposeTo investigate the effect of Aquatic therapy as an early rehabilitation protocol for elite athletes with acute lateral ankle sprain grade III on back-to-sport time, dynamic balance, pain, Athletic performance, and muscle power compared to land-based exercise training.MethodsThirty elite athletes have ankle sprain grade III with sprain onset from 1 to 7 days, their age ranges from 18–30 years old were recruited. All participants are professional athletes; mainly participating in above-head sports such as volleyball and basketball. The patients were randomly allocated into two treatment groups: Group I (control group): 15 patients received a conventional physical therapy program of structured therapeutic exercise program, manual therapy and land-based exercises, in addition to external support, and Group II (Aquatic therapy group): 15 patients received aquatic training. Visual Analog Scale (VAS) was used to measure the pain intensity, while the dynamic balance was measured by the Star Excursion Balance Test. Athletic performance was measured by HOP Tests (Single, Triple, 6-m, and Cross-over hops) aided by the Agility T-Test (ATT) and Illinois Agility Test (IAT). Muscle power was tested by a Single Leg Press. Finally, back to sports time was recorded for each participant in both groups.ResultsThere was a significant interaction effect of Aquatic therapy and time for VAS (p < 0.001), single hop (p < 0.001), triple hop (p < 0.001), cross-over hop (p < 0.001), IAT (p = 0.019) and ATT (p < 0.001) of both affected and nonaffected. There was no significant interaction effect of Aquatic therapy and time for 6-MHT of affected (p = 0.923), and nonaffected (p = 0.140). There was a significant main effect of time for all dependent variables (p < 0.001) except for 6-MHT of affected (p = 0.939), nonaffected (p = 0.109), and IAT (p = 0.099). The Star excursion dynamic balance test (SEBT) and Single leg press revealed a significant difference between groups on affected and non-affected sides (p < 0.001*). Lastly and most importantly the back-to-sport time revealed a significant difference in the return-to-sport time in favor of the Aquatic therapy group who returned faster than the control group (p < 0.001*).ConclusionAquatic therapy is more effective than traditional protocols regarding early rehabilitation of acute ankle sprain grade III in Elite professional athletes for reducing pain intensity, improving dynamic balance and athletic performance and power and accelerating their return to sports time. Because aquatic therapy produces better outcomes, it is advised to be included in the rehabilitation programs of athletic patients with acute ankle sprains grade III.

Anterior cruciate ligament injuries in elite badminton athletes: 84% Return to sport, half return to performance.

Badminton requires fast and pivoting movements, putting athletes at risk of sustaining an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. The primary purpose is to investigate the return to sport (RTS) and the return to performance (RTP) after an ACL injury in elite badminton athletes. The secondary purpose is to describe ACL injury mechanisms in elite badminton players. Athletes within the top 200 of the Badminton World Federation World Ranking who sustained an ACL injury between January 2001 and December 2021 were retrospectively included. An anonymous online survey was created in eight languages. RTS, RTP and contributing factors were analysed among athletes aiming to RTP. The injury mechanism was analysed in all participants. Sixty-six athletes from 32 countries were included. Fifty-seven athletes (86.4%) aimed to RTP. Forty-eight out of 57 (84.2%) did RTS. Twenty-nine (50.9%) managed to successfully RTP. Forty-nine (74.2%) of ACL injuries occurred during a competition, 14 (21.2%) occured during training. Thirty-one (49.2%) occurred in the rear court backhand side and 47 (74.6%) occurred during landing after a jump. Forty-eight out of 57 (84.2%) athletes managed to RTS. Half of the athletes managed to successfully RTP. Most of the ACL injuries occurred during competition, in the rear court backhand sideand during landing after a jump. Level III.

Association between FT3 Levels and Exercise-Induced Cardiac Remodeling in Elite Athletes.

Previous studies demonstrated that variations of fT3, even within the euthyroid range, can influence cardiac function. Our aim was to investigate whether thyroid hormones, even within the euthyroid range, are associated with the magnitude of exercise-induced cardiac remodeling in Olympic athletes. We evaluated 1342 Olympic athletes (mean age 25.6 ± 5.1) practicing different sporting disciplines (power, skills, endurance, and mixed). Athletes underwent blood testing (thyroid stimulating hormone, fT3, and fT4), echocardiography, and exercise-stress testing. Athletes taking thyroid hormones, affected by thyroiditis, or presenting TSH out of ranges were excluded. The level of thyroid hormones varied according to the type of sporting discipline practiced: endurance athletes presented the lowest TSH (p < 0.0001), fT3 (p = 0.007), and fT4 (p < 0.0001) in comparison to the remaining ones. Resting heart rate (HR) was positively correlated to fT3 in athletes of different disciplines (power: p = 0.0002, R2 = 0.04; skill: p = 0.0009, R2 = 0.05; endurance: p = 0.007, R2 = 0.03; and mixed: p = 0.04, R2 = 0.01). The same results were seen for peak HR in the exercise-stress test in athletes engaged in power, skill, and endurance (respectively, p < 0.0001, R2 = 0.04; p = 0.01, R2 = 0.04; and p = 0.005, R2 = 0.02). Moreover, a positive correlation was observed with cardiac dimensions, i.e., interventricular septum (power: p < 0.0001, R2 = 0.11; skill: p = 0.02, R2 = 0.03; endurance: p = 0.002, R2 = 0.03; mixed: p < 0.0001, R2 = 0.04). Furthermore, fT3 was directly correlated with the left ventricle (LV) end-diastolic volume in skills (p = 0.04, R2 = 0.03), endurance (p = 0.04, R2 = 0.01), and mixed (p = 0.04, R2 = 0.01). Thyroid hormones, even within the euthyroid range, are associated with cardiac adaptive response to exercise and may contribute to exercise-induced cardiac remodeling.

Biomechanics of Elite Athletes: Analyzing Key Kinematic and Kinetic Variables

Biomechanics of Elite Athletes: Analyzing Key Kinematic and Kinetic Variables

A - 51 Examining the Role of Cognition in Lower Extremity Musculoskeletal Injury and Concussion Risk in Elite Athletes

A - 51 Examining the Role of Cognition in Lower Extremity Musculoskeletal Injury and Concussion Risk in Elite Athletes

Anthropometric and Somatotype Profile of Elite Finn Class Sailors.

Determining the reference base of anthropometric parameters on a sample of elite athletes is one of the foundations of further research and forming a clearer picture of each sport and sports discipline. In this study, the aim was to describe the anthropometric and somatotype profiles of elite Finn class sailors and to determine the differences in the measured parameters between sailors at different levels of general competitive success. The subject sample included 57 Finn class sailors who competed at the open Finn European Championship. A set of 25 anthropometric variables were applied. The sailors were divided into three groups according to their level of general competitive success using World Sailing Rankings. Finn sailors had higher average values in almost all morphological characteristics when compared to the sailors in other Olympic classes. Considering the average values of somatotype categories, we determined that Finn sailors fit the endomorphic mesomorph somatotype category (3.94 ± 1.19 - 5.50 ± 1.19 - 1.63 ± 0.74). Significant differences were observed between more-successful, medium, and less-successful sailors in the variables of age, body mass, muscle mass, arm muscle mass, and endomorphy rating. These results indicate the possibility of selection processes and/or adaptation to sailing occurring in the Finn class. The anthropometric characteristics of Finn sailors compared to sailors in Olympic classes further "support" the Finn class being called the "heavy dinghy" male class. This study on anthropometric parameters, determined via a sample of top Finn sailors, may be of great help to coaches and young sailors when deciding on the selection of an adult sailing class.

All the little pointers: a poetic representation of a female elite athlete’s experience of living with and seeking treatment for an eating disorder

ABSTRACT Eating disorders are highly prevalent in elite athletes but the lived experience of these has not been investigated extensively. In this article, we draw on life story data generated from four hours of interviews with a young (20 years plus), Swedish, elite, female athlete in an individual sport, named Lisa (a pseudonym) to explore her experiences of living with, seeking treatment, and attempting to recover from a diagnosed eating disorder. This exploration is accomplished by the use of poetic representations. Having made the methodological case for their use we then present the poems for consideration by the reader. The three poems are entitled All the little pointers, The voice inside my head, and Turning it around. Following this, we offer some reflections on how each poem might act as a pedagogical resource to assist those involved with elite athletes to better understand the nature of eating disorders, how the sporting environment can play a role in initiating and sustaining them, and how athletes might be supported and guided on the road to recovery.

Politics in Sport Facility Development in Budapest, 1863–1945

The interaction of sport and politics has created various consequences in the evolution and development of Hungarian sport. The legal framework of sport organizations, the possibilities of elite and grassroots athletes, the incorporation of Hungary into the international sport structure and the financial public funding of physical activity have always been dependent on the dominant political powers and the international environment. The history of sport facility development and management in Budapest started simultaneously with the institutionalization of Hungarian sport in the second half of the nineteenth century, political endeavors arguably determine this progress. Until World War I, facility constructions were correlated with the Millennial Celebrations and preparation for the athletes’ participation in the Olympic Games; moreover, the intention to host the Olympics in Budapest was also crucial in policymaking. In the interwar period, the idea of ‘Justice for Hungary’ inspired political decisions related to sport, and facility constructions served the goal to create adequate circumstances to enhance physical education of the society and to host international sporting events. Legal documents, minutes of parliamentary, governmental, and municipal sessions prove that political actors of both time periods prejudiced essentially the development of sporting life and sport facility constructions of the capital.

The Relationship between Basal Ganglia Volume and Audiovisual Reaction Time in Turkish Elite Athletes

Background: In this study involving young adult elite athletes and healthy sedentary individuals, volumetric analyses were performed on basal ganglia (BG) involved in the coordination of motor movements. Aims and Objectives: In a group of athletes with high coordination speed, potential relationship between BG volumes and audiovisual reaction time of acquired-trained hand movements was explored by examining whether these individuals had significant differences in terms of BG volumes. Materials and Methods: Nineteen elite athletes aged between 19 and 25 years (9 male and 10 female) and 20 sedentary subjects (10 male, 10 female) were included. Gender, age, height, weight, and body-mass index (BMI) were recorded. In each group, audiovisual reaction time and stereological basal ganglia volumes were assessed and statistically analyzed. Results: Elite athletes react more rapidly to auditory stimuli than visual stimuli. As compared to sedentary individuals, elite athletes exhibited significantly shorter visual reaction time and only numerically shorter (statistically insignificant) visual reaction time. Left BG volume was higher in both groups, compared to right side). Conclusion: Our data may contribute to the construction of a database of normal BG morphology and provide useful information for clinicians and athletes.