Elephant Welfare Research Articles

Some population characteristics and viability of captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Thailand

Abstract. Pla-ard M, Sukmasuang R, Uthairasmee S. 2022. Some population characteristics and viability of captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Thailand. Biodiversitas 23: 1072-1081. Sustaining long-term viable populations of captive Asian elephants poses a challenge in managing the existing populations. Therefore, studies of the characterization and long-term persistence of the population are an important aspect of the action. The results of long-term population analysis of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) using Population Viability Analysis (PVA) from the demography information showed that the birth and reproductive rate of the captive elephants in Thailand are declining significantly while the mortality rate trends are stable. Analysis results of the population's ability to persist in the long term from the initial population of 4,252 elephants, it was found that extinction of the population if the percentage adult female breeding is 80%, which is the best-case scenario, if the mortality rate increases by 6% from the present, the population will start going into extinction. If the percentage adult female breeding is set to 2.3%, which is the lowest breeding condition in captive Asian elephants, the population will become extinct in every scenario. Therefore, the most important method in maintaining the captive Asian elephant population is to increase the birth rate improve the well-being, health, nutrition, environment, and welfare of elephants in captivity are important factors that would reduce deaths and are very important for the long-term survival of the population in Thailand.

Effects of Positive Reinforcement Training and Novel Object Exposure on Salivary Cortisol Levels under Consideration of Individual Variation in Captive African Elephants (Loxodonta africana).

Simple SummaryRegular training for medical or enrichment purposes and the provision of environmental enrichment, such as varied feeding schedules and novel objects, are part of the management of African elephants in zoos. The present study aimed to find out whether training and enrichment in the form of a novel object induced physiological changes in captive African elephants. We repeatedly sampled the saliva of ten animals (three zoos) before and after training and the exposure to a novel object for the analysis of cortisol and as a measure of stress and arousal. We found high salivary cortisol levels before and low levels after training. A novel object, in contrast, moderately increased the salivary cortisol levels. Moreover, males and young elephants showed lower salivary cortisol levels than females and old elephants, respectively. The zoo, handling method (free vs. protected contact to keepers), reproductive and social status, however, did not influence the salivary cortisol levels of the animals studied. We conclude that the relatively high cortisol values before training could be due to anticipation of the training event. A novel object, in contrast, may have evoked arousal, which led to the observed cortisol increase. In addition, understanding why animals differ in stress responses will help to manage stress in zoo elephants with the goal of ensuring their welfare.Dealing with potential stress in species that have high husbandry requirements, such as elephants, is a challenge for zoos. The objective of the present study was to determine whether positive reinforcement training (PRT) and exposure to a novel object (NOV) for enrichment induced a salivary cortisol response indicative of activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and which factors determine individual variation in this regard in captive African elephants. We repeatedly sampled the saliva of ten animals (three zoos) for the analysis of cortisol (SACort) before and up to 60 min (in 10–15 min intervals) after the onset of PRT (three repeats) or NOV (nine repeats), which lasted 10 min. There was considerable individual variation in SACort in response to PRT or NOV. Using mixed models, we were able to control these and to reveal that PRT was associated with high SACort before and relatively low SACort after PRT, while NOV induced a moderate SACort increase. The individual differences in SACort were related to age and sex (NOV), while the effects of zoo, handling method (free vs. protected contact) and reproductive and social status were variable. We conclude that positive affective states, such as anticipation or arousal, should be taken into account when interpreting the differences in the SACort responses between PRT and NOV. In addition, understanding the individuality of stress will support management decisions aimed at promoting captive elephant welfare.

Clinical health issues, reproductive hormones, and metabolic hormones associated with gut microbiome structure in African and Asian elephants

BackgroundThe gut microbiome is important to immune health, metabolism, and hormone regulation. Understanding host–microbiome relationships in captive animals may lead to mediating long term health issues common in captive animals. For instance, zoo managed African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) experience low reproductive rates, high body condition, and gastrointestinal (GI) issues. We leveraged an extensive collection of fecal samples and health records from the Elephant Welfare Study conducted across North American zoos in 2012 to examine the link between gut microbiota and clinical health issues, reproductive hormones, and metabolic hormones in captive elephants. We quantified gut microbiomes of 69 African and 48 Asian elephants from across 50 zoos using Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA bacterial gene.ResultsElephant species differed in microbiome structure, with African elephants having lower bacterial richness and dissimilar bacterial composition from Asian elephants. In both species, bacterial composition was strongly influenced by zoo facility. Bacterial richness was lower in African elephants with recent GI issues, and richness was positively correlated with metabolic hormone total triiodothyronine (total T3) in Asian elephants. We found species-specific associations between gut microbiome composition and hormones: Asian elephant gut microbiome composition was linked to total T3 and free thyroxine (free T4), while fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) were linked to African elephant gut microbiome composition. We identified many relationships between bacterial relative abundances and hormone concentrations, including Prevotella spp., Treponema spp., and Akkermansia spp.ConclusionsWe present a comprehensive assessment of relationships between the gut microbiome, host species, environment, clinical health issues, and the endocrine system in captive elephants. Our results highlight the combined significance of host species-specific regulation and environmental effects on the gut microbiome between two elephant species and across 50 zoo facilities. We provide evidence of clinical health issues, reproductive hormones, and metabolic hormones associated with the gut microbiome structure of captive elephants. Our findings establish the groundwork for future studies to investigate bacterial function or develop tools (e.g., prebiotics, probiotics, dietary manipulations) suitable for conservation and zoo management.

Nighttime behavior and the length of social relationships in male Asian elephants

ABSTRACT To evaluate elephant welfare, it is important to understand their use of time both during day and night. The length of social relationships can influence how much time they spend in different activities. We assessed daytime and nighttime activity budgets of male Asian elephants at Denver Zoo and examined how length of relationships influenced nighttime behavior. Using scan sampling we investigated activity budget and proximity to a conspecific, and used General Estimating Equations to compare them across day and night and across new and established dyads at night. During daytime, elephants spent significantly more time exhibiting affiliative and agonistic behaviors, and in proximity to a conspecific, and less time resting, compared to night. Overnight, the odds of resting were significantly lower in new social dyads compared to established dyads, and new dyads spent more time exhibiting agonistic behavior and in proximity to a conspecific compared to established dyads. Our study suggests that male elephants at Denver Zoo have developed strong relationships and highlights the importance of systematically observing elephants overnight so that managers make decisions that improve animal welfare.

Supporting Zoo Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare and Herd Dynamics with a More Complex and Expanded Habitat.

Simple SummaryEnsuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species, whether free-ranging or managed to varying degrees under human care. The welfare-based design of a new habitat for Asian elephants focused on meeting the elephants’ physical, physiological, psychological, and social needs 24 h a day and across life stages. In this study, multiple elephant health and welfare indicators measured throughout transition and acclimation from the previous habitat to this new habitat provided evidence that the complexity, flexibility, space, and resource distribution of the new habitat was effective in improving overall welfare. The elephants were more active and walked farther on a daily basis in the new habitat, with an average walking distance of over 15 km per day. Disbursement of food with less temporal and spatial predictability increased foraging opportunities, which is important for psychological well-being of this species. All individuals showed adaptive and normal adrenal responses to the changes and challenges throughout the construction period and subsequent acclimation to a novel environment. They demonstrated social dynamics of a healthy herd in both habitats with transitions of individuals through life stages; however, in the new habitat they exhibited more autonomy in choosing whom to associate with socially, suggesting increased social equity for individuals.Ensuring good health and welfare is an increasingly important consideration for conservation of endangered species, whether free-ranging or managed to varying degrees under human care. The welfare-based design of a new habitat for Asian elephants at the Oregon Zoo focused on meeting the elephants’ physical, physiological, psychological, and social needs 24 h a day and across life stages. The habitat was designed to encourage activity, promote species-typical behaviors, support changing social dynamics, offer increased opportunities for choice, and provide biologically meaningful challenges. In this 4-year study, we monitored elephant health and welfare indicators throughout the transition and acclimation from the previous habitat to the new habitat. Several welfare indicators obtained through longitudinal hormone analyses, behavior assessments, and GPS measurement of walking distance and space use provided evidence that these goals were achieved. The elephants were more active and walked farther on a daily basis in the new habitat, with an average walking distance of over 15 km per day. A switch from primarily caretaker-delivered food to seeking food on their own indicates that the disbursement of food with less temporal and spatial predictability increased foraging opportunities, which better satisfies appetitive motivations important for psychological well-being. All individuals showed adaptive and normal adrenal responses to change and challenge, with the highest fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations and variability during the construction phase, and a return to previous baseline concentrations in the new habitat, suggesting they acclimated well to the new environment. The elephants expressed a diverse range of species-typical behaviors and demonstrated social dynamics of a healthy herd in both habitats with transitions of individuals through life stages. They exhibited more autonomy in choosing whom to associate with socially and also by choosing different aspects of their environment with regular indoor/outdoor access and extensive resource use in the new habitat. Findings indicate that the complexity and flexibility of the new habitat and habitat management has been effective in improving overall welfare by providing meaningful challenges and the opportunity to express appetitive behaviors, by offering choice in environmental conditions, and by providing the space and resource distribution to support evolving herd dynamics and increased social equity for individuals.

Could Culling of Elephants Be Considered Inhumane and Illegal in South African Law?

Elephant culling is included in National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in the Republic of South Africa, as a last-resort option to reduce elephant population size when required to meet reserve objectives. Recent judgments in South African courts have emphasised the importance of considering animal welfare in conservation. We assess the approved method of culling elephant family units, in terms of the legal and policy framework in South Africa, as well as considering elephant welfare and wellbeing. We find that the current culling method is likely to be inhumane, and potentially inconsistent with the Constitution, as interpreted by the judiciary. In addition, in certain circumstances, culling is illegal in terms of the Animals Protection and Meat Safety Acts, and contravenes World Organisation for Animal Health and global standards for the slaughter of animals. We recommend considering a moratorium on culling of elephant family units, as well as of lone bulls, until humane slaughter methods, and standard operation procedures that ensure an extremely high probability of instantaneous (“clean”) kill, are developed and approved. We recommend an ethics review process for conservation management interventions involving wellbeing risks to animals, such as is required for animal research. Notwithstanding other imperatives that need consideration, conservation practice should better balance welfare, to align with both South African legislation and global norms.

Your happiness or mine: Influence of affective states and level of contact on public perceptions of elephant tourism

AbstractMany captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand participate in the tourism industry at attractions known as ‘elephant camps.’ There has been significant criticism of low welfare venues, where the elephants may experience injuries, poor nutrition, unnatural social environments and aversive handling. Despite increasing concern for animal welfare, the general public often have difficulty identifying the welfare issues affecting captive animals. The aim of this study was to investigate participants’ willingness to support an elephant attraction and their perceived emotional value from the experience, based on the affective state of the captive elephant and their level of contact with it. Participants (n = 590) from the United States were randomly assigned to one of four vignettes (using a 2 × 2 experimental design) that described an elephant attraction, varying the affective state of the elephant (feels excellent, feels terrible) and the level of contact they could have with the elephant (low, high). A mixed methods approach was used, where participants provided answers to Likert-type questions, followed by an open-ended response. Participants showed greater willingness to support the elephant attraction and greater perceived emotional value from the experience when the elephant felt excellent, as opposed to when the elephant felt terrible. There were no significant differences between low and high contact for the measures included in this study. Qualitative responses varied greatly, with participants making many assumptions about the elephant and the attraction, revealing potential misconceptions that they had regarding the welfare of captive elephants. This research may be used to encourage a shift in tourism preferences to venues that reflect positive elephant welfare.

Does the experience make a difference? Comparing tourist attitudes pre- and post-visit towards the elephant tourism industry

Animal welfare is a significant issue in wildlife tourism and is becoming an important component in tourists' decisions. This study explored the type of tourists who most likely visit different elephant tourism venues and compared tourist attitudes pre-and post-visit. We surveyed 132 tourists at 12 venues in Thailand. We found that participant age was the clearest indicator for the type of venue they were likely to visit and that home location and welfare standards at venues had the greatest effect on attitudes post-visit. Results suggest elephant welfare can be an important factor for some tourists; therefore, efforts should be made to increase public awareness of the issues within elephant tourism venues which could lead to positive attitude and behaviour change.

Public Feeding Interactions as Enrichment for Three Zoo-Housed Elephants.

Simple SummaryHuman–animal interactions are an important focus of modern animal welfare research. A subset of this interest includes animal–visitor interactions that occur in zoos. One understudied aspect of animal–visitor interactions involves public feedings, where visitors can directly feed the zoo animals. We examined the effects of public feedings compared with nonpublic feed days on the general activity of three zoo-housed elephants. In addition, we examined the general activity of the elephants in the months prior to public feedings, as well as their general activity on public feed days before, during, and after a public feeding. Public feedings were effective at increasing social activity and decreasing stereotypies for two of the elephants when compared with nonpublic feed days. Additionally, all three elephants showed increased foraging and decreased inactivity following a public feeding. Our results suggest that public feedings can be an effective form of environmental enrichment for zoo-housed elephants.The past few decades have seen increased interest in studies examining the welfare of elephants and animal–visitor interactions. One understudied area for both pursuits is the impact of public feeding interactions. Our study examined the effects of public feedings on the general activity of three zoo-housed elephants. Prior to public feedings, we developed and assessed a 21-behavior ethogram split into six classes of behavior. Comparisons between the elephants demonstrated that only one of the elephants engaged in stereotypies with regularity (>30%), and that the stereotypies occurred in place of most foraging. During public feedings, we compared the general activity of each elephant independently and across both public feeding and nonpublic feeding days, as well as the general activity before, during, and after a public feeding. Public feedings increased social activity and decreased stereotypies when compared with nonpublic feeding days for two of the elephants. In addition, all three elephants showed increased foraging and decreased inactivity in the period after a public feeding session. These results demonstrate that public feedings can be a useful tool for enriching the welfare of zoo-housed elephants and are among the first sets of data to demonstrate positive welfare outcomes associated with public feedings.

Social Dynamics of a Newly Integrated Bachelor Group of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): Welfare implications

ABSTRACT Male associations are a typical component of elephant society, allowing bulls to practice appropriate social behavior. To improve zoo elephant welfare, it is important to provide bulls with social opportunities. In fall 2018, Denver Zoo added two bull Asian elephants to its existing all-male group of three bulls, offering the opportunity to conduct a systematic behavioral study of the integration of the new bulls into the resident group. We recorded aggressive and affiliative behaviors before, during, and after the introduction of the new males. The proportion of aggressive behavior was significantly higher during the five-month introduction period compared to before their introduction. By the end of the study period, the elephants engaged in significantly more affiliative behavior and less aggressive behavior than during the introduction period, suggesting they had formed a new stable social dynamic. These results suggest group compatibility and positive elephant welfare resulting from housing male elephants together and can be used to inform management plans for bull elephants that prioritize their welfare.

How Tourist Preference and Satisfaction Can Contribute to Improved Welfare Standards at Elephant Tourism Venues in Thailand.

Simple SummaryTourists who visit elephant tourism venues (ETVs), and other wildlife attractions, can influence the activities offered at these venues by positive and negative word-of-mouth. When a person has a good experience and they tell their family and friends, or leave reviews online, this can influence people to participate in the activity. The same is also true when a person has a bad experience; although, in this instance, they can influence people not to participate in the activity, limiting the possible success of that venue. Generally, tourists seem to prefer to visit ETVs that allow elephants to behave naturally over those that make their elephants entertain tourists. Therefore, we visited twelve ETVs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and compared the opinions of tourists who visited riding and non-riding venues towards the use of captive elephants for entertainment. We found that tourists who reported a preference for ETVs with higher welfare standards had personally seen elephants being treated poorly. Additionally, higher welfare standards may positively affect tourists’ satisfaction with their experience. Therefore, tourists can influence the activities offered at ETVs by demanding better living conditions for elephants and only financially supporting ETVs with higher welfare standards.Consumer satisfaction and preference can be integral in influencing and solidifying change in user-driven industries such as tourism. High satisfaction rates are imperative to the continual success of a venue as satisfaction determines the likelihood of repeat business and positive recommendations to friends, family and online review forums. Tourist preference for ecocentric tourism venues, over anthropocentric ones, appears to be increasing in elephant tourism venues (ETVs) in Thailand. To explore this, we visited twelve ETVs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and compared the preferences and satisfaction of tourists who visited riding and non-riding venues toward the use of captive elephants in an entertainment setting. We found that tourists visited riding and non-riding ETVs for similar reasons, primarily due to recommendations from friends and reviews, and because the venue had a good reputation. Tourist preference for higher welfare standards was observed at venues where participants directly observed poor treatment of the elephants. Tourist satisfaction may be impacted by higher elephant welfare standards; therefore, tourists have the ability to influence the elephant tourism industry by demanding better living conditions for elephants and only financially supporting ETVs with higher welfare standards.

Longitudinal Improvements in Zoo-Housed Elephant Welfare: A Case Study at ZSL Whipsnade Zoo.

Simple SummaryZoo elephant welfare has been the topic of much debate over the last two decades, with criticisms made regarding the husbandry and welfare of these species held in European and North American zoos. The aim of this study was to evidence the value of a species-specific behavioural monitoring programme and highlight the positive improvements in elephant welfare that were made in a single collection case study, by the comparison of behavioural activity budgets (time spent performing a particular behaviour) with previous published literature. This study identifies numerous indicators of positive welfare in our collection, including species-appropriate levels of feeding, low engagement in stereotypy (abnormal repetitive behaviour), and proportions of resting behaviour that are consistent with figures published from comparative zoo individuals. Additionally, we show that positive social associations exist between individuals in our study group, with low incidences of agonistic social behaviour and high engagement in positive social interactions. Finally, we acknowledge that improvements are required to further enhance elephant welfare in zoos and we have used the data collected throughout this research programme to adopt an evidence-based approach to the husbandry and management of Asian elephants at Zoological Society of London (ZSL) Whipsnade Zoo.Over the last two decades, criticisms were raised regarding the welfare experienced by elephants in European and North American zoos. Concerns regarding the welfare of zoo-housed elephants in the UK and Europe were consolidated in the publication of several key reports, and media interest peaked. Throughout this study we aim to outline the behavioural measures of welfare observed in the current group of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Zoological Society of London (ZSL) Whipsnade Zoo, using key welfare indicators for this species and comparing them to previous published work. Following the instigation of a species-specific research programme, empirical behavioural data were available to quantify any developments in care and welfare. The collection of behavioural information revealed that individuals in our study group engage in low levels of stereotypic behaviour, have formed and maintain strong associations with one another and display a high proportion of engagement in lying rest. We outline that by applying simple, low-cost methods of behavioural data collection and analysis, it is possible to collect evidence that allows us to evaluate individual level welfare. This facilitates the adoption of an evidence-based approach to zoo management as well as demonstrating compliance with updated legislation for this species.

Increasing browse and social complexity can improve zoo elephant welfare.

While recent work has assessed how environmental and managerial changes influence elephant welfare across multiple zoos, few studies have addressed the effects of management changes within a single institution. In this paper, we examine how management changes related to social structure and diet affect the behavior of a group of zoo elephants over a 23-month period while also considering underlying factors, such as time of day, hormonal cycle, and individual differences. We recorded individual behaviors using 2-min scan samples during 60-min sessions. We analyzed behavioral changes across several study variables using generalized linear mixed models. We found that increasing browse can improve opportunities for foraging throughout the day but may not be sufficient to reduce repetitive behaviors. We observed that increasing group size and integration of bulls with cows can lead to increased social interaction in African elephants. Our results highlight the importance of using multiple management alterations to address elephant welfare, and considering environmental factors, when making management decisions.

Social and environmental impacts on sleep in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

Modern zoos strive to improve standards of animal management, husbandry and welfare of their animals as part of a continual evaluation process. Elephants (Elephantidae) have received particular attention in recent years due to the challenge of providing environments which promote natural behavior and opportunities for social interaction. A number of measures have been proposed to measure wellbeing, with sleep quality increasingly being used. Sleep is a vital aspect of life for cell replenishment as well as optimal development of young. Sleep deprivation can lead to immunosuppression and illness; therefore animal managers have a responsibility to ensure they reduce the potential for disturbance through noise, light, or other environmental factors. The social environment also plays an essential role in wellbeing, particularly for species that live in multi-generational family units. In this study the nocturnal behavior of a multi-generational captive herd was observed to determine impacts of husbandry changes on sleep duration and bout length (measured as recumbent rest). As expected, average total duration of sleep was higher in younger elephants and rates were comparable to those reported in other studies of Asian elephants. Overnight access to an outdoor paddock in warmer weather increased overall average bout length of sleep in the herd. Average total duration of sleep also increased for the herd following the movement of an unrelated adult female who had previously shown weak bonds with other herd members. This indicates that social compatibility is a vital component of elephant welfare, impacting not only behavioral interactions but sleep quality and duration.

Welfare Assessment and Activities of Captive Elephants in Thailand.

Simple SummaryIn Thailand, captive elephants are used in tourism and involved in a variety of activities, such as feeding, bathing, riding, or just observation. The welfare of these elephants has been a topic of intense debate in recent years, resulting in divergent opinions on what are or are not appropriate uses. This paper summarizes the current status of captive elephants in Thailand, highlighting issues and challenges facing elephant tourism today. We review recent welfare studies conducted to understand how tourist activities affect welfare outcomes and provide recommendations for the future. Captive elephants in Thailand must be managed under human care with good practices aimed at meeting welfare needs to ensure healthy, sustainable populations. Our goal is to provide information to elephant facilities on best practices, and relay findings to governmental and tourist organizations in Thailand to ensure the welfare and sustainability of this important species.Thailand is the epicenter of elephant tourism and visiting an elephant camp is a popular activity according to the Tourist Authority of Thailand. However, the welfare of these elephants has been questioned by animal activist groups, international tour operators, and the public. Conclusions that the vast majority of captive elephants are abused often are based on anecdotal evidence and not solid science. So, it is difficult to tease apart emotion, opinion, and fact with regard to what practices are good or bad for elephant welfare. The aim of this paper was to: (1) describe the unique status of captive elephants in Thailand and associated regulations, (2) summarize current issues and challenges facing elephant tourism, (3) review studies conducted on welfare of tourist elephants in Thailand, and (4) offer recommendations for how elephants can be properly cared for under captive conditions in tourist camps. We conclude there are many ways to manage these elephants, and that not all tourist activities are bad for welfare. However, it is essential they be managed in a way that meets physical, physiological and psychological needs, and that management decisions are based on objective data.

Commonalities in Management and Husbandry Factors Important for Health and Welfare of Captive Elephants in North America and Thailand.

Simple SummaryThere is considerable concern about the welfare of elephants used for education, research, and entertainment purposes in western zoos and Asian tourist camps, and whether captive venues meet the needs of these highly social and intelligent animals. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies to determine how factors in the captive environment affect animal welfare both positively and negatively. The use of multi-disciplinary approaches to assess welfare has aided improvements in the management of captive elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. In this paper, we review the most recent findings of our elephant studies that, using similar methodologies, highlight the importance of proper diets, adequate exercise, natural and stimulating environments, and freedom of movement to welfare. Overall, we found a number of commonalities in how environmental factors affect biological function of elephants managed under vastly different conditions. This type of integrative information is important for establishing welfare guidelines to ensure healthy, sustainable global populations of captive elephants.This review paper is a synthesis of results from multiple studies that we have conducted over the past several years using similar methodologies to identify factors related to welfare of captive populations of elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. Using multiple conservation physiology tools, we found that, despite vastly disparate management systems, there are commonalities in how environmental and husbandry factors affect physical and physiological outcomes. Elephants appear to have better welfare, based on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analyses, when housed under conditions that provide a more enriched, stimulating, and less restrictive environment. We also found it is essential to balance diet and exercise for good body condition and metabolic function. In Thailand, use of tools to control elephants, such as the ankus (i.e., guide, hook) and chains, did not equate to poor welfare per se, nor did riding; however, improper uses were associated with higher wound scores and FGM concentrations. Foot health was good overall in both regions, with cracks being the most common problem, and better foot scores were found in elephants kept on softer substrates. Based on these findings, science-based guidelines are being developed in Thailand, while in North America, changes are being incorporated into elephant standards and husbandry resource guides. Management across venues can be improved by encouraging elephant exploration and exercise, establishing socially compatibility groups, ensuring proper use of tools, and providing balanced diets. We contend there is no “one-size-fits-all” management strategy to guarantee good welfare for elephants, but there are essential needs that must be met regardless of where or how they are managed. Future studies are needed to find ways to better socialize elephants; determine how temperament affects coping styles and resilience; study the importance of good handler-elephant relationships; identify more ways for elephants to engage with the environment; and assess the effect of life history on subsequent physiological and psychological well-being.

Evaluating the Reliability of Non-Specialist Observers in the Behavioural Assessment of Semi-Captive Asian Elephant Welfare.

Simple SummaryIt is essential that elephant workers monitor the stress levels of their animals to uphold high standards of welfare. This can be done quickly and efficiently by observing elephant behaviour, however, the consistency of this approach is likely to vary between workers. While this variation has been tested in zoo elephants when observations were carried out by experienced observers, the consistency of observations made by non-experienced observers on the much larger population of Asian elephants working in Southeast Asia has yet to be explored. By constructing a list of elephant working behaviours, we employed three volunteer observers with no experience of elephant research to record the behaviour of Asian elephants working in Myanmar. We then tested the similarity between observations collected by the three observers, as well as the consistency that individual observers could repeatedly recognise the same behaviour. Overall, observers recognised the same behaviour from the videos and were highly consistent across repeated observations. These results suggest that the behaviours tested may represent useful indicators for welfare assessment, and that non-experienced observers can meaningfully contribute to the monitoring of elephant welfare.Recognising stress is an important component in maintaining the welfare of captive animal populations, and behavioural observation provides a rapid and non-invasive method to do this. Despite substantial testing in zoo elephants, there has been relatively little interest in the application of behavioural assessments to the much larger working populations of Asian elephants across Southeast Asia, which are managed by workers possessing a broad range of behavioural knowledge. Here, we developed a new ethogram of potential stress- and work-related behaviour for a semi-captive population of Asian elephants. We then used this to collect observations from video footage of over 100 elephants and evaluated the reliability of behavioural welfare assessments carried out by non-specialist observers. From observations carried out by different raters with no prior experience of elephant research or management, we tested the reliability of observations between-observers, to assess the general inter-observer agreement, and within-observers, to assess the consistency in behaviour identification. The majority of ethogram behaviours were highly reliable both between- and within-observers, suggesting that overall, behaviour was highly objective and could represent easily recognisable markers for behavioural assessments. Finally, we analysed the repeatability of individual elephant behaviour across behavioural contexts, demonstrating the importance of incorporating a personality element in welfare assessments. Our findings highlight the potential of non-expert observers to contribute to the reliable monitoring of Asian elephant welfare across large captive working populations, which may help to both improve elephant wellbeing and safeguard human workers.

Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites and H/L Ratio are Related Markers of Stress in Semi-Captive Asian Timber Elephants.

Simple SummaryAnimals are kept in captivity for various reasons worldwide. Throughout its range countries, the Asian elephant is used for various purposes, with a significant proportion of the remaining population working as draft and transport animals in the timber industry. However, captivity can also lead to compromises in welfare that need to be quantified for successful intervention. A key way of assessing an animal’s well-being in wildlife and zoo biology is to measure its stress. Previous studies have found positive, negative, or no relationship between two commonly used measures of stress: stress hormones and the ratio of two types of white blood cells—heterophils to lymphocytes. Our study is one of the first to show a positive and consistent link between these two measures in semi-captive Asian elephants from Myanmar, irrespective of sex, age, or environmental context. Our results show that using the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio from blood smears on-site may offer a potentially cheaper and faster way to determine stress than measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in the laboratory.Animals are kept in captivity for various reasons, but species with a slower pace of life may adapt to captive environments less easily, leading to welfare concerns and the need to assess stress reliably in order to develop effective interventions. Our aim was to assess welfare of semi-captive timber elephants from Myanmar by investigating the relationship between two physiological markers of stress commonly used as proxies for welfare, faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGM) and heterophil/lymphocyte ratios (H/L), and link these measures to changes in body condition (determined by body weight). We further assessed how robustly these two markers of stress performed in animals of different age or sex, or in different ecological contexts. We measured FGM concentrations and H/L ratios between 2016 and 2018 from 316 samples of 75 females and 49 males ranging in age from 4 to 68. We found a positive and consistent link between FGMs and H/L ratios in Asian elephants, irrespective of their sex, age, or ecological context. Our results will help to inform managers of (semi-) captive elephants about using heterophil/lymphocyte ratio data from blood smears on site as a potentially cheaper and faster alternative to determining stress than measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in the laboratory.

Health Status Examination of Sumatran Elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) Using Ultrasonography, Cortisol Analysis and Parasite Identification in Aek Nauli Elephant Conservation Camp (ANECC) and Tangkahan Conservation Response Unit (CRU), North Sumatra

In North Sumatera, captive Sumatran elephants are maintained in several conservation units, 2 of them were Aek Nauli Elephant Conservation Camp (ANECC) and Tangkahan Conservation Response Unit (CRU). Although elephant conservation sites have implemented a management plan to address elephant health and welfare issues, Sumatran elephants in captivity are still susceptible to some of the health issues such as breeding problems, stress, and poor health. Therefore, the health examination is necessary to be conducted regularly as an effort to save the Sumatran elephant which has been categorized as one of the critically endangered animals. This study was carried out in Aek Nauli and Tangkahan which covered the assessment of elephant reproduction status using ultrasonography, cortisol analysis using ELISA, and parasite identification using sedimentation, floatation and Parfit and Banks methods. The ultrasonography examination was carried out on each conservation site, while the collected blood and feces were transferred to Veterinary Medicine Faculty Universitas Syiah Kuala for cortisol and parasite analysis, respectively. The data on reproductive status, cortisol level, and gastrointestinal parasite were analyzed descriptively. The sonography result showed that 3 Sumatran elephants in ANECC had uterine cysts, while one pregnant elephant and two elephants with involution uteri were recorded in CRU Tangkahan. Worm eggs from genus trematode and nematode were found during feces examination in ANECC, but the only nematode was observed in Tangkahan. Elephant maintained in Tangkahan had a higher cortisol level (82.11±61.49 ng/ml) compared to those maintained in ANECC (16.87±3.88 ng/ml). As a conclusion, the reproduction status, cortisol level, and parasite gastrointestinal observed in Sumatran elephant maintained in 2 conservation sites (ANECC and CRU Tangkahan) were different, probably due to different stress factor and management implemented on.

Assessing the Psychological Priorities for Optimising Captive Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Welfare.

Simple SummaryThe welfare of elephants in captivity is of significant public interest and the cause of considerable debate amongst the scientific, legislative, zoo and animal welfare advocacy communities. A tool capable of identifying what elephants need to experience to have good welfare would not only help bring clarity to this debate, it could also direct elephant welfare policy and management to more effectively optimise welfare and provide a valuable reference tool by which elephant welfare could be assessed. To that end, a systematic process is trialed to identify the welfare priorities for Asian elephants. These pilot assessments demonstrate the importance of providing species-appropriate feeding, social and mental opportunities to protect elephant welfare and suggest that the current priorities established in husbandry guidelines do not accurately reflect the psychological needs of elephants; in particular, they appear to underestimate the importance of behaviours and mental processes associated with acquiring food.The welfare status of elephants under human care has been a contentious issue for two decades or more in numerous western countries. Much effort has gone into assessing the welfare of captive elephants at individual and population levels with little consensus having been achieved in relation to both the welfare requirements of captive elephants, or their absolute welfare status. A methodology capable of identifying the psychological priorities of elephants would greatly assist in both managing and assessing captive elephant welfare. Here, a Delphi-based Animal Welfare Priority Identification System© (APWIS©) is trialled to evaluate the reliability of the methodology and to determine the welfare significance of individual behaviours and cognitive processes for Asian elephants (Elaphus maximus). APWIS© examines the motivational characteristics, evolutionary significance and established welfare impacts of individual behaviours and cognitive processes of each species being assessed. The assessment carried out here indicates appetitive behaviours essential for survival in the wild, together species-specific social and cognitive opportunities are likely to be important to the welfare of Asian elephant in captivity. The output of this assessment, for the first time, provides comprehensive species-specific psychological/welfare priorities for Asian elephants that should be used to inform husbandry guidelines, habitat design and management strategies and can also provide a valuable reference tool for Asian elephant welfare assessment. The effective application of these insights could lead to substantive improvements in captive Asian elephant welfare.