Elephant Habitat Research Articles

Geospatial analysis of elephant habitat suitability and movement for mapping the elephant corridor in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary (India).

Wildlife and natural resources constitute an integral part of the ecosystem, whereas human interventions dismantled the living conditions of the wildlife. This is testified in the Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary (DWS) where the habitats of Asian elephants have changed due to human intervention and deforestation over the decades. The present study aimed to assess the elephant habitat suitability in the DWS of Jharkhand state (India) using the geospatial parameters such as forest density, degree of slope, proximity to water bodies, land use land cover, proximity to agricultural land, built-up density, and road density. The analytical hierarchical process technique was utilized to determine habitat preference and selection of relevant factors to categorize criteria. The study revealed that about 6.7% (26.74 km2) of the area is very highly suitable for elephant habitat, while 52.26% (208.49 km2) of the forest area was found highly suitable. The most suitable habitat was identified in the core parts of the forest, while the least suitable areas were found in the southern part, where the presence of roads, built-up, and agricultural land was prominent. It was also observed that most human-elephant conflicts were exhibited in the low and very low suitable areas, while 90% of the elephant movement was witnessed in the high and very high suitable areas. Among the four identified corridors, three are inactive, and their location corresponds with low to very low suitable habitats. The study identified the migratory corridor routes inside the sanctuary where effective management is required for the conservation of elephant habitats and minimizing conflicts.

Factors influencing appearance and suitable habitat for wild elephants in the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand

Abstract. Nanla Y, Marod D, Duengkae P, Paansri P, Noowong J, Manitoem C, Sukmasuang R. 2024. Factors influencing appearance and suitable habitat for wild elephants in the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Biodiversitas 25: 3061-3072. Protected areas are designated to conserve biodiversity and provide a safe habitat for wildlife. This study aims to investigate the factors affecting elephant appearance and changes in habitat. The maxEnt program was used to analyze data derived from the patrolling system with constant quality monitoring. Four categories of environmental factors, climatic, physiological, biological, and anthropological factors were used to analyze the wild elephant data yearly from 2017 to 2022. The aim was to understand the effect of environmental factors on the wild elephants’ appearance and their habitat suitability. The results showed an average area under the receiver-operating-characteristic curve (AUC) was 0.81±0.004 SD. The results indicated that climatic (42.97%), physiological (32.62%), and anthropological (21.23%) factors affected the appearance of wild elephants significantly. Temperature factors showed the highest percentage contribution (39.04%), while water sources and salt licks, considered physiological factors, contributed 22.13% and 5.06%, respectively. Habitat suitability analysis revealed that the majority of the park area (64.91%) was categorized as unsuited and poorly suited habitat areas, while 35.07% was categorized as moderated and well-suited habitat areas for wild elephants. Implementing strategies to improve water sources and salt lick sites within the park and managing the area to minimize human disturbance both on the surrounding boundaries and the tourist destination sites are recommended to manage the wild elephant.

Habitat Suitability Evaluation and Ecological Corridor Construction for Asian Elephants: The Case of Jiangcheng, a New Range for Elephants in Southwestern China

In recent years, the northward migration of elephant herds in China’s Yunnan Province has attracted unprecedented public attention to the conservation of Asian elephants, with habitat fragmentation and human disturbance thought to be key factors. In this study, we used Jiangcheng, a new distribution site for Asian elephants in southwest China, as an example, combined the available remote sensing and monitoring data with the MaxEnt3.4.1 model, to analyze the factors affecting the activities of Asian elephants under the conditions of human disturbance and habitat degradation. The Least Cumulative Resistance model was utilized to construct the potential ecological dispersal corridors, and the key corridors were identified through the gravity model to explore the ecological security pattern of the habitat of Asian elephants in Jiangcheng County. The results show that the habitat of Asian elephants in Jiangcheng County is fragmented, showing a north–south strip distribution, never moving to the northeast. The existing suitable habitat is located in the low-elevation area (<1500 m), which is close to water sources and roads, and there is no nature reserve in this area. The land is mainly occupied by scrub or grassland near mountainous forests, but part of it is also under cultivation, which leads to conflicts between humans and elephants occur frequently. There are 14 ecological source areas, which are mainly distributed in the two regions of Zhengdong and Kangping, and there are 92 ecological corridors, of which 3 are important corridors and 89 are general corridors. This study comprehensively analyzes the current status and connectivity of Asian elephant habitat in Jiangcheng County at the regional scale, which helps to optimize the pattern of suitable habitat, promotes the dispersal of Asian elephants and habitat connectivity, and provides realistic guidance and basic information for the conservation planning of isolated populations of this species and their habitats.

Addressing Human-Elephant Conflict in Sarpang, Bhutan: Challenges and Practices

Asian elephants face threats from human-elephant conflict (HEC), driven by habitat encroachment and fragmentation. In the foothills of the Himalayas, HEC affects a large number of people, causing significant damage to property and crops. Bhutan, sharing elephant habitats with India, faces similar challenges, particularly in the southern regions in Sarpang. We studied the HEC pattern and mitigation strategies adopted by people through a questionnaire survey. Our primary data from the Sarpang division showed that more than 40 % of households experienced HEC. The elephant largely affected maize and paddy along with cash crops such as areca nut, orange, ginger, and cardamom. The study revealed a strong association between crop-raiding incidents and cultivated areas, with most depredations occurring at night. The majority of respondents indicated that crop depredation has increased over the years, which could be linked to the degradation and fragmentation of forest habitat in the landscape. Mitigation measures, such as electric fencing, are preferred but underutilized due to financial constraints. The study emphasizes the need for transboundary cooperation between India and Bhutan, integrating traditional and advanced mitigation strategies, and community involvement. Effective communication, joint patrolling, and habitat restoration are the keys to managing HEC. Transboundary governance should include political and legal support, regional diplomacy, and innovative land use policies.

Living with elephants: Analyzing commonalities and differences in human-elephant conflicts in China and Tanzania based on residents' perspectives

Humans and elephants inevitably encounter competition over resources in the elephant habitat. Due to different social development conditions, there may be differences in how humans and elephants coexist in different regions, mainly reflected in the attitude toward elephant conservation and the ability to cope with conflicts. By comparing human-elephant conflicts in different regions, it helps to explore the long-term coexistence path between humans and elephants. This paper selects the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in China, the habitat of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and the Nyerere-Selous-Mikumi region in Tanzania, the habitat of African steppe elephants (Loxodonta africana), as the study area, and assesses the current situation of human-elephant conflict in the study area through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, to understand the residents' perception of the conflict and the willingness of residents to protect elephants, and empirically analyze the factors affecting the residents' willingness to protect. The results showed that the types of human-elephant conflicts in the Xishuangbanna (China) and the surrounding areas of the Nyerere-Selous-Mikumi ecosystem in Tanzania were similar, and the respondents in the Xishuangbanna region (China) suffered more losses but had a stronger willingness to protect elephants. Besides, residents that are less impacted by conflict, have higher household incomes and more diversified livelihood sources are likely to have a stronger willingness to protect the elephant. This study emphasizes the role of socioeconomic development and governance capacity enhancement in mitigating human-elephant conflict, providing a richer perspective on the governance of human-elephant conflict.

Identifying human elephant conflict hotspots through satellite remote sensing and GIS to support conflict mitigation

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a significant issue in Sri Lanka and many parts of the world where elephants and humans coexist. To address HEC, this study integrates remote sensing and GIS analysis, focusing on monitoring changes in greenery. The study prepared the latest land cover and land use (LCLU) maps with Sentinel-2 satellite data, correlating them with reported HEC incidents reported in 2021 and 2022 to identify HEC hotspots in two forest-dominated regions of Southeast Sri Lanka. High-resolution sentinel-2 satellite imagery were used to detect areas of human activities and elephant habitats in proximity to each other. Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) classification methods were used for LCLU classification. The overall accuracy of the classification was 97.31 and 94.62, and kappa was 0.95 and 0.90 for RF and SVM, respectively. Multi-temporal normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) analysis provided insights into vegetation health and coverage, offering a clear picture of greenery changes. Monthly changes in vegetation cover readings were quantified using NDVI values derived from MODIS data, identifying suitable regions for elephants to forage frequently. Furthermore, Kernel density estimation identified high-density areas for reported incidents of human and elephant deaths. This process involved assigning weight to conflict incidents within a 5 km radius, considering the proximity to the forest, and evaluating greenery changes using NDVI values, revealing varying levels of HEC risk, ranging from very high to low. The LCLU map, created using the RF classifier, indicates that all potential HEC hotspots for very high and high HEC risks are closely aligned with forest boundaries. The findings support HEC mitigation strategies through community awareness, HEC hotspots mapping and restoration practices to ensure a sustainable human-elephant coexistence. This method will help policymakers in wildlife conservation to identify high risk HEC zones to support HEC mitigation. In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of integrating remote sensing and GIS techniques in demarcating HEC hotspots in Sri Lanka to support conflict mitigation efforts.

On the elephant trails: habitat suitability and connectivity for Asian elephants in eastern Indian landscape.

Identifying suitable habitats and conserving corridors are crucial to the long-term conservation of large and conflict-prone animals. Being a flagship species, survival of Asian elephants is threatened by human-induced mortality and habitat modification. We aimed to assess the habitat suitability and connectivity of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758 habitat in the state of Odisha in eastern India. We followed the ensemble of spatial prediction models using species presence data and five environmental variables. We used least-cost path and circuit theory approaches to identify the spatial connectivity between core habitats for Asian elephants. The results revealed that normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI; variable importance 42%) and terrain ruggedness (19%) are the most influential variables for predicting habitat suitability of species within the study area. Our habitat suitability map estimated 14.6% of Odisha's geographical area (c. 22,442 km2) as highly suitable and 13.3% (c. 20,464 km2) as moderate highly suitable. We identified 58 potential linkages to maintain the habitat connectivity across study area. Furthermore, we identified pinch points, bottlenecks, and high centrality links between core habitats. Our study offers management implications for long-term landscape conservation for Asian elephants in Odisha and highlights priority zones that can help maintain spatial links between elephant habitats.

Assessment and prediction of human-elephant conflict hotspots in the human-dominated area of Rajaji-Corbett landscape, Uttarakhand, India

Understanding the dynamics that drive human-wildlife conflict and identifying potential mitigation solutions requires understanding the spatial patterns of conflict. The juxtaposition of ecological preservation and economic growth has led to increased conflicts between humans and Asian elephants Elephas maximus in the Rajaji-Corbett landscape of Uttarakhand, India, where the conversion of elephant habitat to agricultural land have increased over the last several decades. We investigated the predictors influencing household-level human-elephant conflicts (HECs) using binomial Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) collected from semi-structured questionnaire-based surveys of 266 households in the human-wildlife interface next to protected areas. Further, we modelled the landscape predictors that influence the spatial distribution of HECs by collecting occurrence data of HECs in 25 km2 grid units (N = 1473 grids) using Maxent software. We discovered that HECs are directly influenced by the diversity of major and minor crops planted and the proximity to agricultural land (conflicts decreased with increasing distance from the agricultural land). We also observed that the probability of HECs decreased with increasing elevation, increase in road networks, and with increasing slope in the study area; while HECs increased with increase in human population. We discovered that nearly one-fifth of areas sampled (3606.87 km2) in the Rajaji-Corbett landscape were at high risk of HEC, especially flat, agrarian areas where most people reside. Farmers in the susceptible risk areas identified by our study could lessen the likelihood of crop damage and HEC incidents by cultivating highly profitable alternative crops that are less attractive to elephants. Additionally, implementing mobile-based Early Warning System in high HEC hotspot areas could mitigate crop raiding and potentially reduce the occurrence of HECs. The findings of our study can assist policymakers and park management in designing landscape-scale human-wildlife conflict mitigation strategies tailored to identified conflict hotspots.

Impacts Of Changes in Vegetation Structure on Elephant Habitat and Relationship to Human Conflict

With global climate change, ecosystems and biodiversity are facing unprecedented threats. Yunnan, as an important region for biodiversity, is experiencing significant vegetation structural changes, which have far-reaching impacts on its endemic elephant populations. This study focuses on how climate change-induced changes in vegetation structure affect Yunnan's elephant habitat and its conflict with humans. The study found that the elephants' traditional habitats have been severely fragmented due to climate change-induced forest degradation and grassland changes, forcing them to engage in more frequent conflicts with the local residents. This ecological change not only threatens the survival of elephants, but also puts enormous economic and livelihood pressures on the local communities. In addition, elephants' migration routes and behavioral patterns have been significantly altered as a result. This study reveals the complex impacts of climate change on biodiversity and human life, and emphasizes the urgency of taking appropriate measures to protect the ecological balance.

Carrying capacity estimation and habitat suitability of Sumatran elephant in Datuk Gedang Wildlife Corridor, Bukit Tigapuluh Landscape, Jambi, Indonesia

Abstract. Fikri N, Rahman DA, Santoso N. 2023. Carrying capacity estimation and habitat suitability of Sumatran elephant in Datuk Gedang Wildlife Corridor, Bukit Tigapuluh Landscape, Jambi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 5548-5557. Rapid land use changes, including deforestation and land conversion into human areas, lead to the fragmentation of Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus) habitat. This study aimed to assess food capacity and determine habitat suitability for Sumatra elephants in Datuk Gedang Wildlife Corridor Bukit Tigapuluh Landscape. The research was conducted from January to May 2023. Data on potential, productivity, and carrying food capacity were collected with a direct method in the field with vegetation analysis. Carrying capacity estimation is based on data on productivity, land cover area, proper use, and Sumatran elephant food needs in a day. The habitat suitability model used the present coordinate point data from the GPS collar period of January-December 2022 with eight environment variables. The data were then analyzed for the build Sumatera Elephant habitat suitability model using the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm. We recorded 95 species of the potential Sumatran elephant food. The total feed productivity is 1,032,740.722 kg/ha /day and the carrying capacity is 258 elephants. There were three models of habitat suitability categories: high 4,238.66 ha (7%), medium 8,522.34 ha (14%), and low 11,130.36 ha (18%). The studied landscape can adequately accommodate the current population of Sumatran elephants depending on landscape governance (policy and spatial planning) outside conservation areas.

Predicting the habitat suitability of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) under future climate scenarios

AbstractThis study aimed to predict the habitat suitability of Asian elephants in Madhesh Province, Nepal, by using maximum entropy (MaxEnt) modeling based on the occurrence data and environmental variables, including bioclimatic, topographic, vegetation‐related, and anthropogenic variables. The study was conducted under current and future climate scenarios for the year 2100. Among the districts of Madhesh Province, the largest suitable habitats for elephants are located in Rautahat district (30%) followed by Bara district (21%), with Dhanusha district having the smallest suitable area (1%). Elevation, slope, annual precipitation, precipitation of the driest quarter, and temperature seasonality were identified as the most important variables affecting habitat suitability. A total of 1037.3 km2 was identified as the current highly suitable habitat for elephants, primarily in grasslands and shrublands. The results of the study depict a slight increase in highly suitable areas under the emission scenarios shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) 2–4.5 and SSP 5–8.5 but a severe decrease in suitable habitats and a drastic increase in unsuitable habitats. The research emphasizes the possible influence of human activities and land use on the living environment of elephants. The study, therefore, suggests that the authorities should prioritize future land use management to lessen the potential harm to the habitats of elephants and other endangered species in Nepal. It is also imperative to identify how elephants utilize their spatial habitat within their range to help park authorities devise efficient management strategies.

Butterflies with a taste for elephant dung: Puddling of adult butterflies on elephant dung in India's Western Ghats

Elephants ingest a large quantity of plant material across the landscape and concentrate it at specific locations through dung and urine excretion, greatly enhancing local nutrient availability for various organisms. During our two-year study in India's Western Ghats, we documented 26 butterfly species from five families puddling on elephant dung. This observation suggests that elephant dung may offer mineral supplementation, which could contribute to the fitness and reproductive physiology of butterflies in elephant habitats.

Beyond protected areas: The importance of mixed-use landscapes for the conservation of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus).

Elephants were once widely distributed across the Indonesian island of Sumatra but now exist in small, isolated populations. Using the best data available on elephant occurrence, we aimed to (a) predict potential habitat suitability for elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) across the island of Sumatra and (b) model landscape connectivity among the extant elephant populations. We used direct sightings and indirect observations of elephant signs, as well as six remotely sensed proxies of surface ruggedness, vegetation productivity and structure, and human land use and disturbance, to model habitat suitability in a Google Earth Engine (GEE) environment. We validated the habitat suitability prediction using 10-fold spatial block cross validation and by calculating the area under the precision-recall curve (AUC-PR), sensitivity, and specificity for each model iteration. We also used a geolocation dataset collected from global positioning system (GPS) collars fitted on elephants as an independent validation dataset. Models showed good predictive performance with a mean AUC-PR of 0.73, sensitivity of 0.76, and specificity of 0.68. Greater than 83% of the independent GPS collar geolocations were located in predicted suitable habitat. We found human modification, surface ruggedness, and normalized difference vegetation index to be the most important variables for predicting suitable elephant habitat. Thirty-two percent, or 135,646 km2, of Sumatra's land area was predicted to be suitable habitat, with 43 patches of suitable habitat located across Sumatra. Areas with high connectivity were concentrated in the Riau and North Sumatra provinces. Though our analysis highlights the need to improve the quality of data collected on Sumatran elephants, more suitable habitat remains on Sumatra than is used by known populations. Targeted habitat conservation, especially of the suitable habitat in and around the Lamno, Balai Raja, Tesso Tenggara, Tesso Utara, Bukit Tigapuluh, Seblat, Padang Sugihan, and Bukit Barisan Selatan ranges, may improve the long-term viability of this critically endangered species.

Determinants of locals’ willingness to participate in human–elephant conflict management: Evidence from Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) poses a significant threat to the conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) and the well-being of local communities in the tropical forests of Asia. As local communities play a crucial role in HEC reduction, their engagement is essential for the success and sustainability of HEC management strategies. This study employs exploratory factor analysis and a logistic regression model to examine the key determinants influencing the participation of locals in HEC management within the Dong Nai Biosphere Reserve (DNBR), Vietnam. The findings indicate that improvements in elephant habitat and land use have the most substantial positive impact on locals' participation in HEC management, followed by policies for HEC reduction, local perception of the benefits associated with elephants, and measures for HEC prevention and mitigation. In terms of demography, individuals' education levels exhibit the highest positive influence on their involvement in HEC management, followed by income, and occupation. These research findings contribute to a broader understanding of human-wildlife conflicts and underscore the significance of community engagement in conservation efforts. By identifying the factors that influence local participation in HEC management, this study aims to inform future initiatives and policies aimed at mitigating conflicts between humans and elephants, while promoting coexistence and sustainable development in the DNBR, Vietnam.

Resting pattern and preferences when lying down at night in a semi-captive population of African elephants

Despite recent improvements in semi-captive African elephant habitats and husbandry, night-time behaviour patterns are still not well documented in this species. Hence, this study investigated resting behaviour when lying down, using data recorded nine African elephants maintained in semi-captivity in South Africa. A total of 111 nights were recorded over a 33-month period (2015–2018). Closed circuit television cameras were used to record the elephant’s behaviour from 17:00–07:00. Three elephants were individually penned in a boma at night while the rest of the herd could move freely between the boma and an outdoor camp. Time laying down and standing up, location, resting side, head direction, sawdust quality, weather conditions, and number of elephants present in the boma were recorded. Data were analysed using linear mixed model and Chi-square test procedures. On average ( ± SE), the elephants slept laying down for 65.64 ± 0.79 mins (1–267 mins). They laid down 3.22 ± 0.05 times per night (0−8), with an average bout length of 69.79 ± 2.65 min and switching side at a rate of 51.03%. No difference in resting duration when laying down was observed between sex, age category, resting side, head direction, whether they were penned or not, and location (P > 0.05). Elephants rested longer laying down between 01:00 and 04:00 (P < 0.0001), with a peak between 01:00 and 02:00. They also rested longer when the weather was clear as compared to overcast and rainy conditions (P < 0.0001). An intermediate freshness of sawdust also resulted in longer resting duration (P < 0.001). Furthermore, elephants laid down more when they were unpenned (P < 0.05); when the sawdust was at an intermediate freshness (P < 0.001); when the number of elephants in the boma was at an intermediate number of 4 (P < 0.001); when the weather was overcast (P < 0.001), and when the ambient temperature was mild (P < 0.001). They were observed laying down more often between 23:00 and 03:00 (P < 0.001), with mature adults preferring the areas opposite to the main entrance of the boma while the younger elephants preferred areas closer to the main entrance (P < 0.0001). Finally, high individual variations were observed in resting duration, number of bouts and average bout length. Further studies are therefore needed to investigate how preferences, personality traits, life-history and external factors associated with eco-tourism can affect the quality of resting laying down in captive African elephants.

Indexing habitat suitability and human-elephant conflicts using GIS-MCDA in a human-dominated landscape

Concerns for biodiversity loss, wildlife conservation, and habitat destruction have dominated the policy agenda worldwide for decades. Unsustainable human-induced development and negative interaction between humans and wildlife have emerged as predominant issues globally. The present study deals with human and elephant conflicts (HEC) in the Polpitigama Divisional Secretariat, Sri Lanka, which is located in the Kahalla-Pallekele elephant corridor and connects Wilpattu and Kaudulla wildlife sanctuaries. The research objectives are identifying spatial patterns of elephant habitat suitability and probable risk zones for HEC. The elephant habitat suitability and HEC risk zones were identified on spatial and temporal scales using Geographic Information System integrating Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. Different factors, including habitat suitability, distance to roads, distance to croplands, distance to forests and protected areas, settlements, and population density, were considered to determine HEC risk zones in the area. Topography, water, and vegetation criteria are considered when determining elephant habitat suitability. The results of the Analytic Hierarchy Process run the spatially explicit model. The results revealed that of the total area, 15.3% is very highly suitable for elephant habitats, while the least suitable areas contribute only 4%. About 33.8% of the area is moderately suitable for elephants. The risk map indicates that 23.7% of the total area is under very high risk for HEC, and the least risk areas only account for 5.4%. About 26.2% of the area falls under the moderate risk zone for HEC. Since the model considered three aspects of HEC, it will help policymakers in wildlife conservation to avoid and minimize the HEC.

How human-elephant relations are shaped: A case study of integrative governance process in Xishuangbanna, China

The conservation of nature is of paramount importance for preserving biodiversity. However, it can also give rise to conflicts and challenges for communities dependent on natural resources. In this paper, we focus on the issue of Human-Elephant conflict (HEC) in Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, China, and investigate the causal linkages between governance systems and HEC. Our research presents a comprehensive case study of a village located within the Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve, delving into the intricate dynamics of human-elephant relationships spanning a three-decade period. Drawing on the integrated governance (IG) theory and actor-centered power (ACP) perspectives, we analyze the influence and interaction of three policy systems—Asian elephant conservation policy, agricultural development policy, and forestry policy—on the governance of HECs. Through our examination of power dynamics among multiple actors involved in policy formulation and those affected by policies, we aim to identify the driving forces influencing governance performance. We have identified noteworthy patterns of synergy and conflicting interests among agricultural, forestry, and elephant conservation policies, which have evolved at different stages of governance. The interplay between these policy systems significantly influences the habitat of wild elephants, the land-use patterns of adjacent communities, and the livelihood strategies adopted by local farmers. As a result of these interactions, an adaptive governance strategy on Human-Elephant Conflicts has emerged. Our findings offer novel perspectives on understanding the nuanced transitions in human-elephant relationships, providing valuable insights into the implications of policy interactions.

Mapping Asian Elephant Habitat Suitability Index in Alur Taluk, Central Western Ghats: A GIS, Remote Sensing, and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Approach for Conservation Assessment

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing are geospatial technologies that have been used for decades in environmental science, including the collection and analysis of data on the physical disabilities of animals, and modelling of wilderness and site assessment. In this study, remote sensing technology was used. GIS and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) methods were used to assess the habitat index of Asian elephants. Use of satellite imagery and topographic maps to create environments and habitats, including land use cover (LULC), vegetation (NDVI), water, and elevation models (DEM). Next comes the use of AHP to determine the location, select the location's priority and distribution pattern. This study used to evaluate Asian elephant habitat preference in the Central Western Ghats region of Alur taluk in Hassan district of Karnataka .The results show that 30 percent of the land is covered with forests and 59 percent of the land with population. Most places have an altitude of 8° to 25° and an altitude of 900 m and 1000 m. The amount of water in the region is not limited to the habitat of the elephants. Habitats inhabited by elephants highlight the need for good management inside and outside protected areas to protect these elephants, especially in areas of translocation, to ensure that habitats are compatible. This information will assist those involved in protecting Asian elephants and their environment in the central Western Ghats region.

Spatio‐temporal trend and mitigation of human–elephant conflict in Xishuangbanna, China

AbstractWith strict enforcement of the legal protection for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in China, the elephant population has steadily increased from 146 elephants in 1976 to over 300 elephants in 2023. More elephants occur in highly fragmented and human‐dominated landscapes, resulting in serious human–elephant conflicts (HEC). We investigated the temporal and spatial aspects of HEC in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, China, from 2011‒2015 and 2016‒2020. We analyzed the characteristics of crop raiding, property damage, and human injury and death by elephants. Then, we employed a multi‐model ensemble forecasting framework to perform a risk assessment, and compared the changes in HEC hotspots to explore the factors influencing conflict. Our data revealed that 91,311 HEC compensations were recorded from 2011‒2020 with a total compensation amount of 127.01 million yuan (17.40 million USD), 89.75% of which was crop compensation. Areas of risk in 2011‒2015 and 2016‒2020 were 2,505 km2 and 3,157 km2, respectively, with an increase in area of 26.01%. The HEC risk areas were mainly distributed in nature reserves and surrounding areas, and &gt;65% of the risk areas were located in land‐use types dominated by artificial planting. Distance to farmland, distance to sparse wood, and slope had the greatest relative importance in the risk model evaluation. The mitigation measures that we recommend include strengthening the monitoring system for Asian elephants in areas with current and potential HEC risks; improving compensation mechanisms, such as determining accurate annual premiums, establishing a shared loss compensation mechanism, and ensuring a fair, transparent, and timely compensation process; and proposing habitat conservation measures, such as restoring suitable habitats for Asian elephants, establishing ecological corridors between nature reserves, and creating a nature reserve system based on the Asian Elephant National Park to enhance the habitat of Asian elephants.

Greenery change and its impact on human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: a model-based assessment using Sentinel-2 imagery

ABSTRACT Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a significant conservation issue for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and an environmental and socioeconomic crisis in elephant range countries, including Sri Lanka. Approximately 14,897 HEC incidents were recorded in Sri Lanka between 2015 and 2021. In this study, we present a Sri Lanka-wide analysis to explore the impact of greenery change on HEC. Our sources were official government data, and land use and land cover maps developed using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. We applied the support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and object-based image analysis classifications to classify land cover into six categories. This classification scheme also considered the differences observed in Sri Lanka’s woody vegetation, consisting of forest, open forest, paddy fields, homestead gardens, and other crops. Analysis of the accuracies of the three types of classifiers confirmed that the supervised classification with two machine learning algorithms, RF and SVM, delivered a higher level of precision in land cover classification. RF was the best option, with a 97.34% overall accuracy and a 0.94 kappa coefficient, while SVM recorded a 94.68% overall accuracy and a 0.89 kappa coefficient. According to the findings, most HEC incidences were recorded in open forests (54%), while 62% were recorded within 2 km of the forest edge. Results indicated that HEC coincides with the human-occupied changed landscape adjacent to forest reservations and patches. The findings could be valuable for HEC management by identifying areas where elephants are most likely to conflict with humans, and the government may declare these as protected areas. Also, we propose an early warning system as an effective approach that helps detect and monitor elephant herds’ movement. Therefore, implementing long-term land use planning is crucial for protecting the forest and natural habitats, restoring elephant habitats, and mitigating HEC by minimizing human encroachment and promoting sustainable land use practices.