Stability Of Electrolyte Research Articles

Non‐Aqueous Liquid Electrolytes for Li‐O2 Batteries

AbstractLi‐O2 batteries (LOBs) have become a research hotspot of energy storage devices because of its high theoretical energy density. Practical applications require that non‐aqueous LOBs can deliver stable and high reversible capacity, which heavily depends on the appropriate electrolyte system. Therefore, it is very important to select electrolytes that are hard to decompose and conducive to modulating the growth kinetics of discharge products. Herein, we will review the current progress and challenges of non‐aqueous liquid electrolytes for LOBs by analyzing the influence factors on electrolyte stability and introducing the design and modification methods of electrolytes with different solvent types. At last, the possible research tactics have been proposed to develop advanced electrolytes for improving electrochemical performance of LOBs.

High-Na-Content Birnessite via P'3-Stacking with Tunable Active Facets for Advanced Aqueous Sodium-Ion Batteries.

Layered Na-birnessites are promising cathode materials for aqueous sodium-ion batteries due to their high theoretical capacity, low cost, and environmental benignity. However, the general O'3 Na-birnessites possess low Na content and dominant inactive {001} exposed facets, which compromise their Na storage capability and cycling stability. Herein, we develop a high-Na-content P'3-Na0.71MnO2·0.15H2O with highly enriched {010} active facets by a hydrothermal conversion method. In comparison with the O'3 Na-birnessite, the P'3 Na-birnessite with a high ratio of {010}/{001} exposed facets provides greatly increased open channels for Na+ diffusion, while the P'3 stacking affords a lower Na+ diffusion barrier, resulting in improved electrode kinetics with a large specific capacity of 176 mAh g-1 at 0.2 A g-1. More importantly, the P'3 Na-birnessite manifests solo Na+ intercalation/deintercalation with extraordinary cycling stability in an aqueous electrolyte, achieving 90.5% capacity retention after 60,000 cycles. When coupled with the NaTi2(PO4)3 anode, the P'3 Na-birnessite-based full cell delivers both high energy density and long cycle life, demonstrating the potential application in aqueous sodium-ion batteries. This study demonstrates an efficient method to prepare high-Na-content P'3 birnessite with tunable exposed facets and provides important insights into developing highly stable layered cathodes for sustainable aqueous sodium-ion batteries.

Influence of Chloride and Electrolyte Stability on Passivation Layer Evolution at the Negative Electrode of Mg Batteries Revealed byoperandoEQCM-D.

Rechargeable magnesium batteries are promising for future energy storage. However, among other challenges, their practical application is hindered by low coulombic efficiencies of magnesium plating and stripping. Fundamental processes such as the formation, structure, and stability of passivation layers and the influence of different electrolyte components on them are still not fully understood. In this work, we gain unique insights into the initial Mg plating and stripping cycles by comparing Mg bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Mg(TFSI)2)- and Mg tetrakis(hexafluoroisopropyloxy)borate (Mg[B(hfip)4]2)-based electrolytes, each with and without MgCl2, on gold electrodes by highly sensitive operando electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (EQCM-D) applying hydrodynamic spectroscopy. With the stable Mg[B(hfip)4]2-based electrolytes, highly efficient and interphase-free cycling is possible and passivation layers are attributed to electrolyte contaminants. These are forming and degrading during the so-called initial conditioning process. With the more reactive Mg(TFSI)2-based electrolyte, thick passivation layers with small pores are growing during cycling. We demonstrate that the addition of chloride lowers the amount of passivated Mg deposits in these electrolytes and accelerates the currentless dissolution of the passivation layer. This has a positive effect since we observe the most efficient cycling and uniform deposition when no interphase is present on the electrode.

Influence of Chloride and Electrolyte Stability on Passivation Layer Evolution at the Negative Electrode of Mg Batteries Revealed by operando EQCM‐D

Rechargeable magnesium batteries are promising for future energy storage. However, among other challenges, their practical application is hindered by low coulombic efficiencies of magnesium plating and stripping. Fundamental processes such as the formation, structure, and stability of passivation layers and the influence of different electrolyte components on them are still not fully understood. In this work, we gain unique insights into the initial Mg plating and stripping cycles by comparing Mg bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Mg(TFSI)2)‐ and Mg tetrakis(hexafluoroisopropyloxy)borate (Mg[B(hfip)4]2)‐based electrolytes, each with and without MgCl2, on gold electrodes by highly sensitive operando electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (EQCM‐D) applying hydrodynamic spectroscopy. With the stable Mg[B(hfip)4]2‐based electrolytes, highly efficient and interphase‐free cycling is possible and passivation layers are attributed to electrolyte contaminants. These are forming and degrading during the so‐called initial conditioning process. With the more reactive Mg(TFSI)2‐based electrolyte, thick passivation layers with small pores are growing during cycling. We demonstrate that the addition of chloride lowers the amount of passivated Mg deposits in these electrolytes and accelerates the currentless dissolution of the passivation layer. This has a positive effect since we observe the most efficient cycling and uniform deposition when no interphase is present on the electrode.

1,8-Diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene as Cyclic Ether Electrolyte Polymerization Inhibition for Wide-Temperature-Range High-Rate Lithium-ion Batteries.

1,3-Dioxolane (DOL), with its broad liquid phase temperature window and low Li+-solvent binding energy, stands out as an ideal solvent candidate for the wide-temperature and high-rate electrolytes. Unfortunately, DOL is susceptible to undergo ring-opening polymerization under common lithium salts, which markedly retards the reaction kinetics. This work introduces the organic basic additive 1,8-Diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) to effectively suppress the polymerization, thus achieving compatibility between LiFSI, LiDFOB lithium salts, and DOL. Furthermore, density functional theory (DFT) calculations are utilized to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of DOL polymerization and to clarify how DBU inhibits its polymerization. The resulting electrolyte, devoid of polymer chain formation, forms a weak solvation structure rich in anions, which demonstrates rapid ion transport kinetics in the bulk electrolyte and excellent electrochemical stability at the electrolyte-electrode interfaces (EEIs) simultaneously. When applied to the LiFePO4||graphite full cell, it exhibits exceptional wide-temperature and high-rate performance, with specific capacities reaching 101.2 mAh g -1 at room temperature (20 C), 36.9 mAh g-1 at -40 °C (0.5 C), and 118.0 mAh g-1 at 60 °C (20 C). This study significantly guides the development of wide-temperature, high-rate electrolytes.

Lewis acid sites in hollow cobalt phytate micropolyhedra promote the electrocatalytic water oxidation.

The acid-base microenvironment of the metal center is crucial for constructing advanced oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalysts. However, the correlation between acidic site and OER performance remains unclear for cobalt-based catalysts. Herein, Lewis acid sites in hollow cobalt phytate micropolyhedra (M-CoPA, M = Cu, Sr) were synthesized by a cation-exchange strategy, and their OER performances were studied systematically. Experimentally, Lewis acid Cu2+ sites with stronger Lewis acidity exhibited superior intrinsic activity and long-term stability in alkaline electrolytes. The spectroscopic and electrochemical studies show Lewis acid sites in hollow cobalt phytate micropolyhedra can modulate the electronic distribution of the adjacent cobalt center and further optimize the adsorption strength of oxygenated species. This study figures out the effect of Lewis acid sites on the OER kinetics and provides an effective way to develop high-efficiency electrocatalysts for energy conversion systems.

Cyclodextrin Metal-Organic Framework Functionalized Carbon Materials with Optimized Interface Electronics and Selective Supramolecular Channels for High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries.

During the reaction process in lithium-sulfur batteries, Lewis acidic lithium polysulfides (LiPSs) affect ion distribution and overall electrolyte stability, degrading battery performance and product distribution (e.g., Li2S). Here, a microenvironment regulation strategy with optimized interface electronics and selective supramolecular channels, is proposed to enhance LiPS reaction kinetics through Lewis basic γ-cyclodextrin metal-organic framework (γ-CDMOF). To validate this concept, γ-CDMOF is rapidly synthesized on 3D graphene foam (GF) via a microwave-assisted method, resulting in a γ-CDMOF/GF cathode for high-performance Li-S batteries. A range of analytical techniques combined with density functional theory (DFT) calculations confirm that introducing a Lewis basic supramolecular microenvironment mitigates the LiPSs shuttle effect, enhances polysulfide capture, and improves sulfur redox conversion. Additionally, COMSOL simulations reveal that the γ-CDMOF framework and oxygen sites significantly reduce volumetric expansion stress during the LiPS solid-liquid phase transition. Impressively, the γ-CDMOF/GF cathode exhibits exceptional performance, including a high specific capacity (1253.01 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1C), excellent rate performance (589.68 mAh g⁻¹ at 5C), and long cycle life (over 1200 cycles). This study introduces a new concept of supramolecular microenvironment regulation and interfacial interaction strategy, offering a unique approach for the development of multifunctional electrode materials.

Recent Advancements in the Interfacial Stability of Garnet Solid Electrolytes and Design Strategies for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: A Review

Recent Advancements in the Interfacial Stability of Garnet Solid Electrolytes and Design Strategies for Solid-State Lithium Batteries: A Review

First‐Principles Molecular Dynamics Study on Reductive Stability of High Concentration Electrolyte on Zn Doped Cu Current Collector Surface

AbstractIn enhancing the lifespan of anode‐free Li metal batteries (AFLMBs), current collector (CC) engineering is crucial for achieving uniform and dendrite‐free lithium deposition. The commonly used copper (Cu) CC is unsatisfactory because of its poor lithiophilicity. Here, we consider Zn doping on the Cu CC surface (Zn−Cu) and explore the reductive stability of a high‐concentration electrolyte (HCE), consisting of 3.6 M Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) salt in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethylcarbonate (DEC), on the Zn−Cu (111) surface (HCE|Zn−Cu) using density functional theory (DFT) and ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations. The interfacial reactions in the HCE|Zn−Cu system are compared to those on the pristine Cu (111) surface (HCE|Cu). We have also studied the effect of electron‐rich environments on the decomposition mechanism of the HCE mixture on both the CC surfaces. It is found that the HCE mixture is electrochemically stable on both Cu and Zn−Cu surfaces in a neutral environment. However, under electron‐rich conditions, only one DEC molecule has decomposed upon contact with the Cu CC surface, while the two PF6− anion groups from Li salts have decomposed much faster (within 100 fs) when the HCE mixture interacts with the Zn−Cu surface. Our results indicate that Zn doping suppresses undesirable solvent decomposition and improves the quality of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer.

Wet sulfuration of molybdate and reconstruction regulation of trace Fe doping for oxygen evolution

There is a growing interest in the development of active, durable, and cost-effective electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reactions (OER). In this study, we synthesized a self-reconstruction iron-doped sulfide-regulated nickel molybdate catalyst using wet chemical sulfuration and electrodeposition techniques. The core-shell nanorods (SC@NMO) were produced through rapid sulfuration. We investigated the effects of sulfur leaching on rapid and extensive electrochemical self-reconstruction. Our approach utilized the phase change of Fe3+ and electrodeposition-induced restructuring to enhance the catalyst's OER activity and stability in an alkaline electrolyte. Notably, iron ions establish a precipitation-dissolution dynamic equilibrium at the interface between the catalyst surface and the electrolyte, which minimizes iron loss and results in a more efficient and stable catalyst. The prepared sample, SC-Fe(Ni)OOH@NMO, demonstrated exceptional oxygen evolution performance and long-term stability in a 1 M KOH solution, achieving an overpotential of only 279 mV at a current density of 100 mA cm−2. It maintained stable operation for 200 h in a high-concentration 6 M KOH solution. The above data prove that this work provides a feasible strategy to enhance the OER catalytic capacity of metal oxides by the two modification methods of co-doping of metal and non-metal and reconstruction.

All-solid-state electrochemical marine sensors based on Na3V2(PO4)3@Na4Zr2Si3O12 solid-state reference electrodes

In this study, Na4Zr2Si3O12 (NZS) solid electrolyte was prepared using an elevated-temperature solid-state method. After heating under supercritical conditions (i.e., 400 °C and 40 MPa), the structure and performance stability of the as-fabricated NZS solid electrolyte were evaluated applying scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). A new all-solid-state reference electrode, combining Na3V2(PO4)3(NVP) with NZS (NVP@NZS), was developed, and its electrochemical properties were investigated. The prepared reference electrode demonstrated steady potential in both simulated seawater and buffer solutions across a range of pH values and different salt solutions. The reference electrode, integrated with an Ir/IrO2 working electrode, was used to construct an all-solid-state potentiometric pH sensor. This sensor demonstrated a strong linear related response when measuring the pH of both aqueous solutions and simulated seawater samples. Additionally, an ion sensor based on anodic stripping voltammetry, constructed with the assembled solid-state reference electrode, a platinum counter electrode, and a gold-mercury working electrode, was utilized to measure Cu2+ and S2− ions in both aqueous solutions and simulated seawater samples. These all-solid-state electrochemical sensors, incorporating the NVP@NZS solid-state reference electrode, demonstrated a small detection threshold, excellent linear correlation (R2 > 0.99), and a broad detection range, making them well-suited for chemical analysis in challenging marine environments.

Li+ Ion-Dipole Interaction-Enabled a Dynamic Supramolecular Elastomer Interface Layer for Dendrite-Free Lithium Metal Anodes.

The unstable lithium (Li)/electrolyte interface, causing inferior cycling efficiency and unrestrained dendrite growth, has severely hampered the practical deployment of Li metal batteries (LMBs), particularly in carbonate electrolytes. Herein, we present a robust approach capitalizing on a dynamic supramolecular elastomer (DSE) interface layer, which is capable of being reduced with Li metal to spontaneously form strong Li+ ion-dipole interaction, thereby enhancing interfacial stability in carbonate electrolytes. The soft phase in the DSE structure enables fast Li+ transport via loosely coordinated Li+-O interaction, while the hard phase, rich in electronegative lithiophilic sites, drives the generation of fast-ion-conducting solid electrolyte interface components, including Li3N and Li2S. Furthermore, the dynamically resilient DSE network composed of soft and hard phases protects Li anodes from electrolyte corrosion and accommodates volume changes during cycling. All features of the DSE layer synergistically facilitate uniform Li+ deposition and suppress Li dendrite propagation, ensuring a stable and dendrite-free Li anode. Consequently, the symmetric Li||Li cell incorporating the DSE layer achieves cycling stability exceeding 6000 h under 1 mA cm-2 and 1 mA h cm-2 conditions. Furthermore, full cell pairing DSE/Li anode with LiFePO4 (LFP) or high-voltage LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) cathodes exhibits high-efficiency Li deposition and cycling stability, even under constrained conditions of limited Li (40 μm) and ultrahigh loading NMC811 cathode (21.5 mg cm-2). This study underscores the effectiveness of the ion-dipole interaction-enabled DSE network in developing stable, high-energy-density LMBs.

Fully biodegradable electrochromic display for disposable patch

Flexible and biodegradable electronics have emerged as a promising solution for escalating electronic waste issue caused by the rapid development of skin patch electronics. Fully biodegradable displays are essential for visualizing biological/physical/chemical/electrochemical signals measured by a wide range of skin patch electronics. Here we propose fully biodegradable electrochromic display providing low operating voltage and low power consumption. The biodegradable transparent conductive electrode was fabricated by transferring free-standing tungsten nanomesh onto poly lactic-co-glycolic acid substrate using electrospinning templating, minimizing damage to the substrate. Electrochromic layer was tungsten oxide which is biodegradable, and a ferrocyanide/ferricyanide redox agent was utilized as a counter electrode reaction to enhance operational stability in an aqueous electrolyte by reducing operating voltage and side reactions. This display successfully visualized diverse signals from various biodegradable electronics such as UV sensors and electrochemical transistors, and finally underwent eco-friendly degradation in phosphate-buffered saline or soil under mild conditions.

Electronic Structure Engineering of Single-Atom Tungsten on Vacancy-enriched V3S4 Nanosheets for Efficient Hydrogen Evolution.

Constructing single-atom catalysts (SACs) and optimizing the electronic structure between metal atoms and support interactions is deemed one of the most effective strategies for boosting the catalytic kinetics of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Herein, a sulfur vacancy defect trapping strategy is developed to anchor tungsten single atoms onto ultrathin V3S4 nanosheets with a high loading of 25.1wt.%. The obtained W-V3S4 catalyst exhibits a low overpotential of 54mV at 10mA cm-2 and excellent long-term stability in alkaline electrolytes. Density functional theory calculations reveal that the in situ anchoring of W single atoms triggers the delocalization and redistribution of electron density, which effectively accelerates water dissociation and facilitates hydrogen adsorption/desorption, thus enhancing HER activity. This work provides valuable insights into understanding highly active single-atom catalysts for large-scale hydrogen production.

A review of recent developments in the design of electrolytes and solid electrolyte interphase for lithium metal batteries

AbstractLithium metal batteries offer a promising solution for high density energy storage due to their high theoretical capacity and negative electrochemical potential. However, implementing of these batteries faces challenges related to electrolyte instability and the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the lithium (Li) metal anode. The decomposition of liquid electrolytes leading to the creation of the SEI emphasizes the significance of the type of Li salt, solvent, and additives designed and used, as well as their interactions during the formation of the SEI. For practical applications, ensuring both the reversibility of the Li metal anode and electrolyte stability at high voltages is crucial. In this review, we explore recent advancements in addressing these challenges through new designs of electrolytes and SEI engineering practices. Specifically, we investigate the effects of electrolyte systems, including carbonate‐based and ether‐based solutions, along with modifications to these electrolyte systems aimed at achieving a more stable interface with the Li metal anode. Additionally, we discuss various artificial SEI structures based on organic and inorganic components. By critically examining recent research in these areas, this review provides valuable insights into current state‐of‐the‐art strategies for enhancing the performance and safety of Li metal batteries.image

Comparative Study of High Voltage Spinel∥Lithium Titanate Lithium‐ion Batteries in Ethylene Carbonate Free Electrolytes

AbstractA persistent obstacle towards the realization of high voltage cathodes is electrolyte instability where oxidation and transition metal dissolution manifest in rapid capacity failure with both issues connected to the presence of ethylene carbonate in the electrolyte. Here, alternative electrolyte co‐solvents are investigated and compared, where the cyclic carbonate is replaced with sulfones ethyl methyl sulfone (EMS) and tetra methylene sulfone (TMS) and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC). The best full cell performance was observed for cells cycled in a FEC/EMC (3/7) and FEC/EMC (1/1) electrolytes which exhibited 84–85 % capacity retention after 500 cycles. TMS/EMC (3/7), was determined to be the best performing sulfone electrolyte and maintained 71 % capacity after 500 cycles. Post‐mortem XPS analysis indicated different film forming mechanisms for the respective co‐solvent. A thicker cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) on the LNMO was observed for the FEC containing electrolytes (relative to when TMS was used as the co‐solvent) indicating more effective passivation of the reactive cathode surface which correlated well with the enhanced cycling stability observed. For LTO, more evidence of transition metal migration and a thicker solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer was observed for the sulfone electrolyte suggesting more parasitic anode‐electrolyte interactions and an inability to mitigate Mn2+/Ni2+ crosstalk.

Dual Function of Hydrogen Bond and CEI to Enhanced Lithium-Ion Battery Performance.

The stability of the commercial electrolyte is linked to the internal solvent molecule, particularly in enhancing the stability of these molecules. Hereby, we introduce a dual function strategy involving hydrogen bond induced solvent molecules and the in situ fabrication cathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) to address this issue. The additive N-(4-(2,5-dioxo-4-oxazolidinyl)butyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroacetamide (DOTFA), with its oxazolidinyl and trifluoroacetamide functional units, establishes hydrogen bonds with the solvent, forming CEI films on the cathode surface that enhance the antioxidation ability of the electrolyte. These hydrogen bonds contribute to enhancing the high-pressure structural stability of the solvent molecule. Additionally, the uniform and robust in situ constructed CEI films act as a shield, protecting the cathode from various side reactions and enhancing interface compatibility. By incorporation of the DOTFA additive in the electrolyte, lithium-ion batteries with NCM811 cathodes exhibit excellent cycling performance. The work highlights the significance of dual function in solvent molecules and provides an effective method for enhancing the antioxidation ability of the electrolyte.

Testing the Stability of NASICON Solid Electrolyte in Seawater Batteries

Rechargeable batteries play a crucial role in the utilization of renewable energy sources. Energy storage systems (ESSs) are designed to store renewable energy efficiently for immediate use. The market for energy storage systems heavily relies on lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density, capacity, and competitiveness. However, the increasing cost and limited availability of lithium make long-term use challenging. As an alternative to Li-ion batteries, rechargeable seawater batteries are gaining attention due to their abundant and complementary sodium ion active materials. This study focuses on the preparation and characterization of Na3.0Zr2Si2PO12- and Na3.15Zr2Si2PO12-type ceramic membranes and testing their stability in seawater batteries used as solid electrolyte. From the surface analysis, it was observed that the Na3.15Zr2Si2PO12 powder showed a specific surface area of 2.94 m2/g compared to 2.69 m2/g for the Na3.0Zr2Si2PO12 powder. The measured NASICON samples achieved ionic conductivities between 7.42 × 10−5 and 4.4 × 10−4 S/cm compared to the NASICON commercial membrane with an ionic conductivity of 3.9 × 10−4 S/cm. Battery testing involved charging/discharging at various constant current values (0.6–2.0 mA), using Pt/C as the catalyst and seawater as the catholyte.

High Configuration Entropy Promises Electrochemical Stability of Chloride Electrolytes for High‐Energy, Long‐Life All‐Solid‐State Batteries

Solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs) with high ionic conductivity, stability, and interface compatibility are indispensable for high‐energy‐density and long‐life all‐solid‐state batteries (ASSBs), yet there are scarce SSEs with sufficient ionic conductivity and electrochemical stability. In this study, with a high‐entropy SSE (HE‐SSE, Li2.9In0.75Zr0.1Sc0.05Er0.05Y0.05Cl6), we show the high configuration entropy has a thermodynamically positive relationship with the high‐voltage stability. As a result, the ASSBs with HE‐SSE and high‐voltage cathode materials exhibit superior high‐voltage and long‐cycle stability, achieving 250 cycles with 81.4% capacity retention when charged to 4.8 V (vs. Li+/Li), and even 5000 cycles if charged to 4.6 V (vs. Li+/Li). Experimental characterizations and density functional theory calculations confirm that the HE‐SSE greatly suppresses the high‐voltage degradation of SSE at the interface, promoting the high‐voltage stability coordinately through high entropy and interface stability. The high entropy design offers a general strategy to simultaneously improve the high‐voltage stability and ionic conductivity of SSEs, creating an avenue to building high‐energy and long‐life ASSBs.

High Configuration Entropy Promises Electrochemical Stability of Chloride Electrolytes for High-Energy, Long-Life All-Solid-State Batteries.

Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) with high ionic conductivity, stability, and interface compatibility are indispensable for high-energy-density and long-life all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs), yet there are scarce SSEs with sufficient ionic conductivity and electrochemical stability. In this study, with a high-entropy SSE (HE-SSE, Li2.9In0.75Zr0.1Sc0.05Er0.05Y0.05Cl6), we show the high configuration entropy has a thermodynamically positive relationship with the high-voltage stability. As a result, the ASSBs with HE-SSE and high-voltage cathode materials exhibit superior high-voltage and long-cycle stability, achieving 250 cycles with 81.4% capacity retention when charged to 4.8 V (vs. Li+/Li), and even 5000 cycles if charged to 4.6 V (vs. Li+/Li).Experimental characterizations and density functional theory calculations confirm that the HE-SSE greatly suppresses the high-voltage degradation of SSE at the interface, promoting the high-voltage stability coordinately through high entropy and interface stability. The high entropy design offers a general strategy to simultaneously improve the high-voltage stability and ionic conductivity of SSEs, creating an avenue to building high-energy and long-life ASSBs.