Electrolyte Solvent Research Articles

Helmholtz Plane Regulation Empowers PF6 - Permselectivity Towards High Coulombic Efficiency Dual Ion Battery of 5.5 V.

High-voltage dual ion battery (DIB) is promising for stationary energy storage applications owing to its cost-effectiveness, which has been a hot topic of research in rechargeable battery fields. However, it still suffers from rapid battery failure caused by the severe solvent co-intercalation and electrolyte oxidation. To address these bottlenecks, herein a functional electrolyte additive hexafluoroglutaric anhydride (HFGA) is presented based on a Helmholtz plane regulation strategy. It is demonstrated that the HFGA can precisely enter into the Helmholtz plane and positively regulate anion solvation behaviors near the graphite electrode surface owing to its considerable H-F affinity with ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), thus alleviating EMC-related co-intercalation and oxidation decomposition during DIB charging. Meanwhile, HFGA can copolymerize with the presence of PF5 at the Helmholtz plane to participate in forming a CF2-rich CEI layer with excellent PF6 - permselectivity, conducive to achieving PF6 - de-solvation and simultaneously suppressing electrolyte oxidation decomposition. By virtue of such beneficial effects, the graphite cathode enables a 5.5 V DIB with a prominent capacity retention of 92 % and a high average Coulombic efficiency exceeding 99 % within 2000 cycles at 5 C, demonstrating significantly enhanced electrochemical reversibility. The Helmholtz plane regulation strategy marks a milestone in advancing DIB technologies.

Li-ion solvation structure at electrified solid-liquid interface: Understanding solvation structure dynamics and its role in electrochemical energy storage through binary ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate solvent.

Binary solvent electrolytes can provide interpretations for designing advanced electrolytes of next generation batteries. This study investigates the adsorption mechanisms of solvated lithium ions in binary solvents near charged electrodes. Molecular dynamic simulations are performed for lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6) in ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate (EC:DMC) solvent sandwiched between two electrodes. Results show that lithium ions form a tetrahedral solvation structure with two EC and two DMC molecules. The solvated lithium ion shows anti-electrostatic interaction with electrodes. This can be attributed to the electrostatic attraction of the polar end of the DMC molecule, which keeps the cation anchored to the positive electrode. Meanwhile, the solvation structure adopts a fix orientation at the negative electrode, which leads to unchanged electrostatic interaction at high charge density. Finally, EC molecules are swapped by DMC molecules near the negative electrode at high charge density. This leads to a decrease in local relative permittivity and, therefore, a decrease in differential capacitance. The differential capacitance of the positive electrode continuously decreases with increasing charge density. This is caused by the partial anchoring of solvent molecules holding the cations, which cancels the adsorption of anions near the positive electrode. This study provides insights into designing better electrolytes for efficient battery performance.

Failure analysis of ternary lithium-ion batteries throughout the entire life cycling at high temperature

The operation life is a key factor affecting the cost and application of lithium-ion batteries. This article investigates the changes in discharge capacity, median voltage, and full charge DC internal resistance of the 25Ah ternary (LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2/graphite) lithium-ion battery during full life cycles at 45 °C and 2000 cycles at 25 °C for comparison. The batteries before and after cycling were disassembled, and the structure, morphology, interface characteristics, element content of the cathode and anode plates of the battery were characterized. By analyzing the failure factors of the performance of the ternary batteries during the 45 °C cycling, a reaction mechanism for the rapid decline of high-temperature cycling performance of ternary batteries has been proposed. The results show that the performance degradation of the ternary lithium-ion batteries in the whole life operated at high temperature is characterized by slow decline in the initial stage and rapid drop in the latter stage. Further analysis of physical and chemical performance revealed irreversible damage to both the cathode and anode. The dissolution of transition metal ions from the cathode and their deposition on the anode surface catalyze the decomposition of electrolyte solvents to produce a large amount of gas. Gassing, accompanied by the deposition of Li2CO3 and the thickening of SEI, leads to an increase in the internal resistance of the battery. The coupling between gassing and increased internal resistance is responsible for the rapid drop in the performance of the ternary batteries during high-temperature cycling.

Multifaceted insights into pentagonal BeP2 monolayer: From electrochemical to mechanical resilience for alkali-ion batteries using DFT

Herein, we elucidated the properties of a pentagonal BeP2 monolayer, emphasizing its robust dynamic, thermal, and mechanical stabilities, as well as its promising electrochemical characteristics. Combining density functional theory (DFT) with a thermodynamic energy decomposition scheme, we identified BeP2 as a potentially excellent 2D material for energy storage devices. It is characterized by large lattice parameters and semi-metallic behavior, exhibiting a zero density of states (DOS) at the Fermi level. It demonstrates favorable open-circuit voltages, low metal ion migration barriers, and negligible structural modifications for Na and K ions. The specific capacities of Li/Na/K reached remarkable values, surpassing those of most previously reported monolayers. Emerging ion battery technology necessitates solid, directly comparable data to establish an optimized standard organic solvent electrolyte. With this objective in mind, we systematically investigated systems combining two Li/Na/K salts with three different alkyl carbonate solvents. Furthermore, we proposed a defect in BeP2 to explore all possible avenues for sustaining the pentagonal BeP2 monolayer (supplementary Fig. S5 and S6). In summary, our findings strongly indicate that the pentagonal BeP2 monolayer holds considerable promise as an anode material for sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) and potassium-ion batteries (KIBs) owing to its high electrochemical and mechanical sustainability and excellent compatibility with electrolytes.

Revealing the Dynamic Evolution of Electrolyte Configuration on the Cathode‐Electrolyte Interface by Visualizing (De) Solvation Processes

AbstractElectrolyte engineering is crucial for improving cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) to enhance the performance of lithium‐ion batteries, especially at high charging cut‐off voltages. However, typical electrolyte modification strategies always focus on the solvation structure in the bulk region, but consistently neglect the dynamic evolution of electrolyte solvation configuration at the cathode‐electrolyte interface, which directly influences the CEI construction. Herein, we reveal an anti‐synergy effect between Li+‐solvation and interfacial electric field by visualizing the dynamic evolution of electrolyte solvation configuration at the cathode‐electrolyte interface, which determines the concentration of interfacial solvated‐Li+. The Li+ solvation in the charging process facilitates the construction of a concentrated (Li+‐solvent/anion‐rich) interface and anion‐derived CEI, while the repulsive force derived from interfacial electric field induces the formation of a diluted (solvent‐rich) interface and solvent‐derived CEI. Modifying the electrochemical protocols and electrolyte formulation, we regulate the “inflection voltage” arising from the anti‐synergy effect and prolong the lifetime of the concentrated interface, which further improves the functionality of CEI architecture.

Simulation and optimization of DMC synthesis process based on conventional and advanced exergy analyses

Dimethyl carbonate has received more and more attentions as an organic solvent in electrolytes. Aiming at the problem of high energy consumption in the process of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) production, the root of the problem was analyzed by using exergy analysis, which provides a theoretical basis for the construction of energy-saving process. Firstly, the overall process of DMC production was constructed, including propylene carbonate (PC) synthesis, DMC synthesis, azeotrope separation and propylene glycol (PG) purification processes. Secondly, the conventional and advanced exergy analyses of the four proposed processes were carried out. The distributions of exergy and exergy destruction were obtained through conventional exergy analysis. The exergy destructions were further divided through advanced exergy analysis, and the avoidable parts were focused on. Based on the above analyses, the corresponding heat integration processes were proposed. Finally, the conventional processes and the heat integration processes were evaluated with the performance indicators of the exergy destruction, total annual cost (TAC), total energy consumption (TEC) and CO2 emissions.

Kinetic and mechanistic studies on the synthesis of dimethyl carbonate reaction using deep eutectic solvents as catalysts

Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is extensively utilized in various industries due to its exceptional physical and chemical properties, functioning as an additive in gasoline and an electrolyte solvent in lithium batteries. Among several production methods, the transesterification of propylene carbonate (PC) with methanol (MeOH) is the most efficient and environmentally friendly. This study synthesized various deep eutectic solvents (DESs) using choline chloride (ChCl) as the hydrogen bond acceptor (HBA) and monoethanolamine (MEA) as the hydrogen bond donor (HBD) in molar ratios of 1: n (n = 5, 6, 7, 8). The DESs’ structures were analyzed using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and their melting points were determined via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The density, viscosity, and surface tension of the DESs were measured over a temperature range from 318.15 K to 358.15 K. The catalytic effects of four different DESs on PC transesterification with MeOH were investigated, revealing that ChCl-6MEA was the most effective catalyst, prompting its selection for further experiments. Subsequent investigations examined the effects of temperature, MeOH quantity, and catalyst dosage on PC conversion and DMC yield. Additionally, this study explored chemical equilibrium and reaction kinetics through experimental and theoretical approaches. Activity-based chemical equilibrium constants, derived from experimental data, and the van’t Hoff equation elucidated their temperature dependency. A pseudo-homogeneous (PH) model characterized the non-ideal thermodynamic behavior of the liquid phase in reaction kinetics analysis. The Arrhenius equation was employed to delineate the impact of temperature variations on reaction rate constants. Finally, the proposed reaction mechanism for ChCl-6MEA catalyzed transesterification was elucidated and verified through quantum chemistry (QC) calculations.

Ethyl Isopropyl Sulfone Modulating to Achieve Stable High-Voltage Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries.

The demand for efficient large-scale energy storage necessitates high-energy-density batteries, making research on high-voltage electrolytes particularly important. In this article, ethyl isopropyl sulfone (ES), which has a high dielectric constant, is added to traditional carbonate-based electrolyte solvents and analyzed. Based on calculated and analyzed results, different proportions of ES are added to the conventional carbonate-based electrolyte. The high-voltage performance, the influence on the surface of the electrode, the active material structure after cycling, the electrochemical behavior, and the impedance of the electrode were studied systematically. As a result, ES addition is applied in high-voltage lithium-ion batteries and exhibits excellent electrochemical properties. These results will provide support for the research and application of sulfone additives in increasing the decomposition voltage of lithium-ion battery electrolytes and improving battery cycle stability.

High‐performance vanadium oxide‐based aqueous zinc batteries: Organic molecule modification, challenges, and future prospects

AbstractAqueous Zn‐vanadium batteries have been attracting significant interest due to the high theoretical capacity, diverse crystalline structures, and cost‐effectiveness of vanadium oxide cathodes. Despite these advantages, challenges such as low redox potential, sluggish reaction kinetics, and vanadium dissolution lead to inferior energy density and unsatisfactory lifespan of vanadium oxide cathodes. Addressing these issues, given the abundant redox groups and flexible structures in organic compounds, this study comprehensively reviews the latest developments of organic‐modified vanadium‐based oxide strategies, especially organic interfacial modification, and pre‐intercalation. The review presents detailed analyses of the energy storage mechanism and multiple electron transfer reactions that contribute to enhanced battery performance, including boosted redox kinetics, higher energy density, and broadened lifespan. Furthermore, the review emphasizes the necessity of in situ characterization and theoretical calculation techniques for the further investigation of appropriate organic “guest” materials and matched redox couples in the organic‐vanadium oxide hybrids with muti‐energy storage mechanisms. The review also highlights strategies for Zn anode protection and electrolyte solvation regulation, which are critical for developing advanced Zn‐vanadium battery systems suitable for large‐scale energy storage applications.

Increasing catalytic efficiency of cobalt centers in oxygen reduction reaction - Evidence from cobalt with salen ligands polymer complex

Substantial research is performed for cobalt-based catalysts for various applications in catalysis, including oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysis in nonaqueous electrolytes. Cobalt exhibits high catalytic activity due to partially filled d-orbitals, which promote the formation of chemisorption bonds with various molecules. The catalytic activity of metal centers can be influenced both by changing their immediate environment and by varying the reaction conditions. This paper investigates the influence of solvent type, electrolyte concentration, and organic framework conductivity on the efficiency of ORR catalysis in non-aqueous electrolytes as illustrated by poly-CoSal polymer complex. The findings show that the increase in the solvent donor number of and conductivity of the organic backbone leads to highly efficient cobalt catalysts, which can be potentially be applied in oxygen cathodes of Li-O2 batteries. CoSal-based catalysts increase the discharge voltage of Li-O2 cells and can operate in dry atmospheric air.

Cyclic Ether Derived Stable Solid Electrolyte Interphase on Bismuth Anodes for Ultrahigh-Rate Sodium-Ion Storage.

The bismuth anode has garnered significant attention due to its high theoretical Na-storage capacity (386mAh g-1). There have been numerous research reports on the stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) facilitated by electrolytes utilizing ether solvents. In this contribution, cyclic tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF) ethers are employed as solvents to investigate the sodium-ion storage properties of bismuth anodes. A series of detailed characterizations are utilized to analyze the impact of electrolyte solvation structure and SEI chemical composition on the kinetics of sodium-ion storage. The findings reveal that bismuth anodes in both THF and MeTHF-based electrolytes exhibit exceptional rate performance at low current densities, but in THF-based electrolytes, the reversible capacity is higher at high current densities (316.7mAh g-1 in THF compared to 9.7mAh g-1 in MeTHF at 50A g-1). This stark difference is attributed to the formation of an inorganic-rich, thin, and uniform SEI derived from THF-based electrolyte. Although the SEI derived from MeTHF-based electrolyte also consists predominantly of inorganic components, it is thicker and contains more organic species compared to the THF-derived SEI, impeding charge transfer and ion diffusion. This study offers valuable insights into the utilization of cyclic ether electrolytes for Na-ion batteries.

Reducing the water quenching processes using heavy water in capillary electrophoresis with fluorescence detection

Water, ubiquitous in analytical methods, is renowned for its fluorescence quenching properties, influencing techniques like fluorescence spectrophotometry or techniques with fluorescence detection. This study explores the impact of water (H₂O) substitution for heavy water (D₂O) on the fluorescence behavior of anthraquinones and anthracyclines. Anthraquinones and anthracyclines play crucial roles in pharmacy, serving as essential components in various therapeutic formulations, particularly in cancer treatment and other pharmacological interventions. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) with heavy water as the background electrolyte (BGE) solvent offers superior sensitivity to the separation and detection of these analytes. Experimental results demonstrate the improved detection limits and separation efficiency of selected anthraquinones rhein (RH), aloe-emodin (AE), and anthracyclines doxorubicin (DOX), epirubicin (EPI) and daunorubicine (DAU) in heavy water-based buffers, highlighting the potential of heavy water in advancing analytical chemistry.

Electrolyte Solvation Engineering Stabilizing Anode-Free Sodium Metal Battery With 4.0V-Class Layered Oxide Cathode.

Anode-free sodium metal batteries (AFSMBs) are regarded as the "ceiling" for current sodium-based batteries. However, their practical application is hindered by the unstable electrolyte and interfacial chemistry at the high-voltage cathode and anode-free side, especially under extreme temperature conditions. Here, an advanced electrolyte design strategy based on electrolyte solvation engineering is presented, which shapes a weakly solvating anion-stabilized (WSAS) electrolyte by balancing the interaction between the Na+-solvent and Na+-anion. The special interaction constructs rich contact ion pairs (CIPs) /aggregates (AGGs) clusters at the electrode/electrolyte interface during the dynamic solvation process which facilitates the formation of a uniform and stable interfacial layer, enabling highly stable cycling of 4.0V-class layered oxide cathode from -40°C to 60°C and excellent reversibility of Na plating/stripping with an ultrahigh average CE of 99.89%. Ultimately, industrial multi-layer anode-free pouch cells using the WSAS electrolyte achieve 80% capacity remaining after 50 cycles and even deliver 74.3% capacity at -30°C. This work takes a pivotal step for the further development of high-energy-density Na batteries.

Use of Pulsed Potentials for Electropolishing TA6V Parts Elaborated By Additive Manufacturing in Deep Eutectic Solvent

The Ti-6Al-4V alloy's high mechanical properties, low density, excellent biocompatibility, and corrosion resistance make it an ideal material for sectors such as aeronautics, astronautics and medical technology. The demand for increasingly complex part designs is speeding up the development of Additive Manufacturing (AM) technology, enabling the creation of shapes unachievable with traditional machining. However, the parts manufactured present significant surface roughness, thus reducing resistance to corrosion and mechanical stress. To mitigate these risks, homogeneous polishing of the entire shape is required. Electrochemical polishing is an all-round part treatment technique ideal for addressing AM challenges. Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) electrolytes are well-suited for this application. The aim of this study is to develop electropolishing of Ti-6Al-4V parts in a DES solvent of ethylene glycol and choline chloride. The challenges posed by viscous layer thickness problems, as well as two methods to overcome them, are described, including agitation control and pulsed potentials.

Bio-inspired 3D-Printed supercapacitors for sustainable energy storage

This study presents a significant enhancement of the electrochemical properties of commercially available high-surface-area bare activated carbon (BAC) through the grafting of catechin hydrate (CH) redox active molecules. The grafting of CH onto the BAC was confirmed by the results from the Thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller. Moreover, this study introduces 3D printed deep eutectic solvent electrolytes, composed of choline chloride and urea, highlighting the potential of sustainable and greener materials in energy storage. A 3D-printed fully bio-inspired supercapacitor achieved a maximum specific capacitance of 75 F g−1 at a scan rate of 1 mV s−1 (37 F g−1 at a current density of 0.2 A g−1), demonstrating performance comparable to that of previously reported state-of-the-art fully 3D-printed and disposable paper supercapacitors (25.6 F g−1 at a scan rate of 1 mV s−1 for 1.2 V). Furthermore, the device exhibited electrochemical performance within an extended potential window of 2.0 V, coupled with cycling stability of approximately 90.2 % after 10,000 cycles, offering a specific energy of 20.6 W h kg−1 at a specific power of 560 W kg−1. The developed bio-inspired, eco-friendly, sustainable, 3D-printed supercapacitors can replace the harmful Li-ion batteries currently used in low-power wireless sensor applications.

Modulating the Inner Helmholtz Plane towards Stable Solid Electrolyte Interphase by Anion-π Interactions for High-Performance Anode-Free Lithium Metal Batteries.

Anode-freelithium (Li) metal batteries (AFLBs) featured high energy density are viewed as the viable future energy storage technology. However, the irregular Li deposition and unstable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on anode current collectors reduce their cycling performance. Here, we propose a concept of anion-recognition electrodes enabled by anion-π interactions to regulate the inner Helmholtz plane (IHP) and electrolyte solvation chemistry for high-performance AFLBs. By engineering the electrodes with electron-deficient aromatic-π systems that possess high permanent quadrupole moment (Qzz),the anion-π interactions can be generated to concentrate the anions on the electrode surface and tune the IHP structure to construct a stable anion-derived SEI layer, thus achieving highly reversible Li plating/stripping process. Through designing various current collectors with different Qzz values, the intimate correlations among the surface charge of the electrode, competitive adsorption of the IHP, and SEI structures are demonstrated. Particularly, the modified carbon cloth current collector with a high Qzz value (+35.1) delivers a high average Li stripping/plating Coulombic efficiency of 99.1% over 230 cycles in the carbonated electrolyte, enabling a long lifespan and high capacity retention of LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2-based AFLBs with a commercial-level areal capacity (4.1 mA h cm-2).

Boosting the Anode and Cathode Stability Simultaneously by Interfacial Engineering via Electrolyte Solvation Structure Regulation Toward Practical Aqueous Zn‐ion Battery

AbstractThe application of zinc‐ion batteries (ZIBs) is seriously challenged by the poor stability of Zn anode and cathode in aqueous solution, which is closely associated with electrolyte structure and water reactivity. Herein, the stability issues both for the cathode and anode can be simultaneously addressed via tuning the electrolyte solvation structure in hybrid electrolyte with tripropyl phosphate (TPP) as co‐solvent. On the Zn anode, a robust poly‐inorganic solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer comprised of Zn3(PO4)2‐ZnS‐ZnF2 species is in situ formed, effectively suppressing parasitic reaction and dendrite evolution. For V2O5 cathode, the notorious vanadium dissolution is effectively restricted with improved structure stability achieved. The optimized electrolyte facilitates the reversible redox kinetics both at the cathode and Zn anode. Consequently, Zn||Zn cells display extended cycling lifespans over 3000 h at 1 mA cm−2, 1 mAh cm−2. Zn||V2O5 full cells deliver a high reversible capacity of 261.8 mAh g−1 and hold retention of 73.6% upon 500 cycles even operated in harsh conditions with thin Zn anode (10 µm) and low negative/positive (N/P) ratio of ≈4.3, which also showcase impressive performance with regard to rate and storage performance, further emphasizing the potential of electrolyte regulation tactics in advancing the commercialization of ZIBs.

Weakly Solvating Ether‐Based Electrolyte Constructing Anion‐Derived Solid Electrolyte Interface in Graphite Anode toward High‐Stable Potassium‐Ion Batteries

AbstractLow‐cost graphite has emerged as the most promising anode material for potassium‐ion batteries (PIBs). Constructing the inorganic‐rich solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on the surface of graphite anode is crucial for achieving superior electrochemical performance of PIBs. However, the compositions of SEI formed by conventional strongly solvating electrolytes are mainly organic, leading to the SEI structure being thick and causing the co‐intercalation behavior of ions with the solvent. Herein, a weakly solvating electrolyte is applied to weaken the cation‐solvent interaction and alter the cation solvation sheath structures, conducing to the inorganic composition derived from anions also participating in the formation of SEI, together with forming a uniformly shaped SEI with superior mechanical properties, and thus improving the overall performance of PIBs. The electrolyte solvation structure rich in aggregated ion pairs (AGGs) (69%) enables remarkable potassium‐ion intercalation behavior at the graphite anode (reversible capacity of 269 mAh g−1) and highly stable plating/stripping of potassium metal anode (96.5%). As a practical device application, the assembled potassium‐ion full‐battery (PTCDA//Graphite) displays superior cycle stability. The optimizing strategy of cation solvation sheath structures offers a promising approach for developing high‐performance electrolytes and beyond.

Deep eutectic solvent for high-performance aluminum-based hydrated eutectic electrolyte

Aqueous multivalent ion batteries, featured by cost-effectiveness, high safety and eco-friendliness, are considered as a preferred alternative to non-aqueous multivalent ion batteries. However, parasitic reactions at the anode (hydrogen precipitation, passivation and dendrite growth) are key factors affecting cell lifespan. Herein, we present a novel aluminum-based hydrated eutectic electrolyte (AHEE) by coupling acetamide, caprolactam, Al(OTF)3 and pure water. Characterization experiments and molecular dynamics theoretical calculations demonstrate that strong interactions between acetamide/caprolactam and water molecules/aluminum ions triggered the construction of a hydrated eutectic network, which significantly suppressed the parasitic reactions at the anode. Moreover, benefiting from the pairing of zinc anode and AHEE, the full battery exhibits high specific discharge capacity (177 mAh g−1) and ultra-long cycle life (18,500 cycles), providing a new technological support for high-performance aqueous multivalent ion batteries.

Overlooked challenges of interfacial chemistry upon developing high energy density silicon anodes for lithium-ion batteries

Evaluation of silicon (Si) anode performance by the assembled Si||Li half-cells is the primary approach in the development of high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, most studies focus solely on the variations of Si anode, the stability of electrolyte on the lithium (Li)-metal counter electrode has been overlooked. Herein, we discovered that the acquired cell performance not only depends on the Li+ (de-)solvation behaviors on the Si anode surface but also was affected significantly by the lithiation overpotential caused by the side reactions on the Li electrode. It is significant to identify this point, as these influences of electrolyte decomposition on the Li electrode have been previously regarded as an integral part of side reactions on the Si anode. We proposed a new perspective of the electrolyte solvation structure and electrode interfacial model to unravel the interfacial behaviors on the Si and Li electrodes respectively. The identified differences in the Li+ solvation and (de-)solvation behaviors not only provide reasons for the varied electrolyte stability in different electrolytes but also interpret the superior performance in tetrahydrofuran (THF)-based electrolytes. This study underscores the importance of understanding electrolyte behavior at the interfaces of individual electrodes to discern the reliability of electrode performance and also introduce a novel principle for designing superior electrolytes for high-energy-density LIBs.