Electrical Conductivity Content Research Articles

A Comparison between Turbidity, and Electrical Conductivity of Pond Water and RO Water in Thandalam for Enhanced Sustainability

Aim: The aim of this study is to check the potability of pond water and RO water. This is carried out by comparing the Electrical Conductivity (EC) and turbidity of two different sources of water. Materials and methods: Twenty number of samples from a local pond and potable water sources were tested for turbidity and electrical conductivity using turbidity meter and conductivity meter, respectively. Results and Discussion: On performing an independent samples t-test on the two groups considered, it is observed that there exists a significant difference between the turbidity and the EC (p <0.05). Turbidity was higher in pond water (21.20 ± 2.51) than that of RO water (6.55 ± 0.33). The concentration of EC is also higher for pond water (1.67 ± 0.35) than that of RO water (0.15 ± 0.33). Conclusion: This study shows that the pond water is not potable when compared to RO water. The pond water requires treatment prior to domestic use in order to improve sustainability.

Salinity and Sodicity Status of the Floodplain Soils of Kebbi State, North Western, Nigeria

Floodplain soils are the sites for most of agricultural activities during dry seasons. With efficient irrigation facilities such as tube wells and water pumps, they can produce 2-3 short duration crops during a year. However, due to persistent irrigation activities, these soils are always susceptible to salinization and sodicity hazards. High salt content in the soil inhibits uptake of plant nutrients and water, while high sodium content in sodic soils destroys soil structure and consequently reduces the rate of permeability and aeration. In view of this, it becomes necessary to assess the level of salinity and sodicity of the floodplain soils of the study area; Augie, Argungu, Birnin Kebbi and Bunza Local Government Area of Kebbi State, so as to ascertain the appropriate management practices to be applied on these soils. Soluble salts were as such analyzed. It was observed that the calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+) and Sodium (Na2+), were in the value of 1.90cmol(+)kg-1, 1.66cmol(+)kg-1, 0.16cmol(+)kg-1, and 0.34cmol(+)kg-1, respectively. Salinity and sodicity determinants were also analyzed where pH was observed to be 6.88, electrical conductivity (EC) 0.19dSm-1 exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) 2.09%. The data were subjected to statistical analysis so as understand the relationship between the four local government areas. Based on the concentration of pH, EC and ESP, the soils could be said to be free from salinity and sodicity hazards at least for now. However, due to the high concentration of Mg2+, K+ and Na+, the soils could be said to have potential threat to salinity and sodicity problems and therefore proper management strategies should be practiced to prevent their further concentration.

Management zone delineation and spatial distribution of micronutrients in cold-arid region of India.

The plant health is governed by many factors: soil playing a central role which exhibits huge variability in its characteristics. Micronutrients even though needed in small quantities by plants play an indispensable role in affecting the crop growth and development. The assessment of spatial variability of different soil parameters is incumbent for tackling the loss of crop productivity on account of non-receipt of desirable inputs. The present investigation centered on the spatial distribution of soil parameters and micronutrients was conducted to delineate management zones (MZs) in cold arid region (Kargil) of India for proficient micronutrient management. Overall 454 georeferenced representative soil samples at the depths of 0-15 cm were garnered. The soil samples were processed and analyzed for different soil parameters encompassing pH, EC (electrical conductivity), SOC (soil organic carbon), and available micro-nutrient (iron, manganese, zinc, copper and nickel) concentrations. The distinct variation in the soil properties including micronutrients was identified with coefficient of variation ranging as low as 5.62% to moderate (21.16 to 42.49%) and as high as 159.63%. Semivariogram analysis and ordinary kriging of soil variables under study revealed diverse spatial distribution exhibiting medium to high spatial dependence in the region. PCA (principal component analysis) and K-means clustering were expended for the delineation of MZs. Four principal components (PCs) having eigen values > 1 and accounting for 70% of the total variation were subjected to further analysis. The five potential MZs were demarcated on the basis of K-means cluster performance index, and heterogeneity in parameters was discerned. The results of study corroborate that the spatial variability analysis of different soil parameters for delineation/identification of MZs might be effectually employed for site-specific micronutrient management.

Long-term cultivation effects on soil properties variations in different landforms in an arid region of eastern Iran

The objective of this study was to investigate the long-term cultivation effects on soil properties changes in different geomorphic surfaces of an arid region in eastern Iran. Surface soil samples (0–30 cm) were collected at 160 locations from five geomorphic surfaces under pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), and saffron (Crocus sativus L.) cultivations in 2004 and 2018. The results showed that dune field geomorphic surface (i.e., CK111) had significantly higher electrical conductivity (EC), soluble cations, including Caaq, Mgaq, Naaq, and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) due to the high salinity of the irrigation water. The highest and lowest soil organic carbon (SOC), available phosphorus (Pav), and available potassium (Kav) values were in the soils under clay flats (i.e., PL111) and CK111, respectively, which positively correlated with clay content. Total nitrogen (TN) was higher in geomorphic surfaces, including pediment with recent and old alluvial deposits (Pi311 and Pi321) and CK111, which were under extensive pistachio orchards. On the other hand, due to the intensive agricultural practices and soil management, the amount of Pav decreased except in Pi321 through 14 years, while Kav has increased in most units. Overall, the results of this study revealed that during long-term cultivation, the size of the areas with high (12 to 16 dS m−1) and very high (16 to 32 dS m−1) salinity and alkalinity classes were increased in the studied regions, especially in pistachio cultivation during irrigation with inadequate water in playa margin lands. Moreover, increasing air temperature and rainfall reduction through recent years, water shortage and salinity, and over-extraction of groundwater are significant factors in increasing the concentration of EC and SAR of water and soil. Consequently, the planning for agricultural development in the region should be done considering the problems and limitations of unsustainable agricultural development on the edge of the desert.

PROFIL VERTIKAL DAN HORIZONTAL PARAMETER SALINITAS, DHL, DAN TDS BERDASARKAN VARIASI MUSIMAN DI ESTUARI SUNGAI CITARUM

Salinity, electrical conductivity (EC), and Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) are parameters that pose an important role in the distributions of environmental pollution substances in the estuary. The difference in salinity, EC, and TDS concentration vertically (based on the depth in the water column) and horizontally (based on the distance from the estuary mouth) will affect the process of pollutant’s transportation and transformation in the estuary. On the other hand, seasonal variations will also affect parameters. Therefore, the information related to the vertical and horizontal profiles of salinity and other parameters based on seasonal variations is necessary to study. The purpose of this study is to analyze the vertical profile and horizontal-vertical of salinity, EC, and TDS concentrations during the rainy season and dry season in the estuary of Citarum River. This research was conducted in April 2018 (rainy season) and August 2018 (dry season) when the low tide. The measurement of salinity, EC, and TDS was directly conducted in the field using a conductivity meter. The results show that the concentration level of salinity, EC, and TDS showed a vertical and horizontal difference in the estuary of the Citarum River. In addition, there are differences in the concentration of salinity, electrical conductivity, TDS in the rainy season and dry season in the estuary of the Citarum River. The level of TDS has a linear relationship between salinity and electrical conductivity, with a value of R2 >95%.

Relationship between Nematodes and some Soil Properties in the Rhizosphere of Banana Plants

Nematodes are plant-parasitic organisms that cause alterations in the chemical and physical environment of soils. This study investigates the relationship between nematode occurrence and some soil parameters. The results showed that the proportion of nematodes in soil was negatively correlated with soil pH (r2= 0.89); however, it increased with increasing electrical conductivity (EC) (r2 = 0.95), soil moisture (SM) (r2 = 0.60), and organic matter (OM) content (r2= 0.78). A positive correlation was found between the proportion of nematodes in the roots and the amount of coarse sand, while a negative correlation existed between the proportion of nematodes and the amount of fine sand, clay, and silt. The degree of colonization by nematodes increased with increasing coarse sand content (r2= 0.91). Conversely, the soil nematode population decreased with increasing fine sand content (r2= 0.83), clay (r2= 0.80), and silt content (r2= 0.97). The nematode population in banana roots correlated with soil phosphorus (r2 = 0.88), potassium (r2 = 69), calcium (r2 = 0.78), and magnesium levels (r2=0.78). Conversely, a negative correlation was found between nitrogen concentration and the nematode population in banana roots (r2=0.76). Overall, the population of nematodes in soil affects its pH, EC, SM, and OM content.

Relationship between Nematodes and some Soil Properties in the Rhizosphere of Banana Plants

Nematodes are plant-parasitic organisms that cause alterations in the chemical and physical environment of soils. This study investigates the relationship between nematode occurrence and some soil parameters. The results showed that the proportion of nematodes in soil was negatively correlated with soil pH (r2= 0.89); however, it increased with increasing electrical conductivity (EC) (r2 = 0.95), soil moisture (SM) (r2 = 0.60), and organic matter (OM) content (r2= 0.78). A positive correlation was found between the proportion of nematodes in the roots and the amount of coarse sand, while a negative correlation existed between the proportion of nematodes and the amount of fine sand, clay, and silt. The degree of colonization by nematodes increased with increasing coarse sand content (r2= 0.91). Conversely, the soil nematode population decreased with increasing fine sand content (r2= 0.83), clay (r2= 0.80), and silt content (r2= 0.97). The nematode population in banana roots correlated with soil phosphorus (r2 = 0.88), potassium (r2 = 69), calcium (r2 = 0.78), and magnesium levels (r2=0.78). Conversely, a negative correlation was found between nitrogen concentration and the nematode population in banana roots (r2=0.76). Overall, the population of nematodes in soil affects its pH, EC, SM, and OM content.

Spatial and seasonal variability in the water chemistry of Kabar Tal wetland (Ramsar site), Bihar, India: multivariate statistical techniques and GIS approach.

This study was performed to evaluate the spatial and temporal distribution of major ions in water samples of a newly designated Ramsar site, namely Kabar Tal (KT) wetland of Bihar. Samples were collected during summer, monsoon, and winter seasons. The analytical and GIS results show that concentration of electrical conductivity, chloride, and nitrate are higher in summer than monsoon and winter. However, the concentration of major cations such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium are higher in winter than monsoon and summer. In addition, major anions like sulphate and phosphate concentration is higher during monsoon than summer and winter. Multivariate statistical tool (discriminant analysis) results suggest that temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, sulphate, and potassium are the major parameters distinguishing the water quality in different seasons. The study confirms that seasonal variations are playing a major role in the hydrochemistry of KT wetland. Overall, this work outlines the approach towards proper conservation and utilization of wetlands and to assess the quality of surface water for determining its suitability for agricultural purposes. Overall, this work highlights the approach towards estimating the seasonal dynamics of chemical species in KT wetland and its suitability for irrigation purposes.

Influence of Land Use Land Cover on River Water Quality in Rural North Wales, UK

AbstractAgricultural and rural land management practices can have a significant impact on the health of river ecosystems. In this study, our goal was to quantify the extent of land use influence on river water quality at two catchments in rural North Wales, Conwy and Clwyd. Stream water samples were collected bi‐weekly from five sampling sites over a three‐month period (September–November 2018) and analyzed in the laboratory to measure six water quality variables, namely, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), phosphorus, nitrate and ammonium concentrations, and bacterial coliform count. We then quantified their relationships with dominant land cover of the contributing catchments using two different land cover classification systems. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed across the sampling sites for pH, EC, nitrate and phosphorus concentration, and coliform count. Strong correlations were observed between pH and the proportion of Acid Grassland, and between nitrate levels and the proportion of Improved Grassland in the catchment. The presence of high‐quality agricultural land correlated positively with nitrate and phosphorus concentrations and bacterial coliform count. Conversely, dominance of poor quality agricultural land correlated with lower levels of all the measured water quality indicators. Our results suggest that the proportion of high‐quality agricultural land is a reliable indicator of stream water quality in rural catchments, most likely linked to intensive farming practices.

Assessment of Bacterial Load in Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Bottled Water Marketed in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

In recent years, we are having mixed feelings regarding the use of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles for storing water. The aim of this study is to determine any associations between bacterial load and the physical condition of the water bottle. For this study, bottled water was purchased, and parameters like pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), heterotrophic plate count (HPC), total coliform count, and Pseudomonas spp. count were determined as per the American Public Health Association, 2005. The pH value of water samples tested ranged from 5.2 to 6.8. The majority of samples (96%) were found to contain pH values that were unacceptable as per the Department of Food Technology and Quality Control (DFTQC) guideline. Value of electrical conductivity (EC) ranged from 5 to 199 μS/cm. HPC revealed that, out of 100 samples, 48 (48%) samples were found to be acceptable as per the DFTQC guideline value (<25 cfu/mL). Among 100 samples, Pseudomonas spp. was found to be present in 23% of bottled water. Acidic pH and elevated concentrations of TDS and EC may lead to the survival of extremophiles present in HPC which may lead to degradation of PET. Extremophile bacteria that survive in bottled water for a long time rely on several survival mechanisms including evolutionary development (evo-devo) and solely survive on complex polymers like PET.

Selected Water Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Iloilo Batiano River, Philippines: A Baseline Study

Protecting our natural resources is one of the important thrusts of every organization. In this study, the waters of Iloilo Batiano River, Philippines is explored. This study was conducted because there is a dearth of information on the water physico-chemical characteristics of the river. Since this is an initial assessment, this study will serve as a baseline data and the results will serve as a basis for future reference for conservation measures of the river. The present study aimed to determine the selected water physico-chemical characteristics of the river such as the electrical conductivity (EC), temperature, pH, and calcium content; assess if these parameters exceed the limit set by the DENR Administrative Order No. 20F16-08 of the Republic of the Philippines and other available literatures; and to determine if there was no significant difference in the water physico-chemical characteristics among the six sampling stations. Results revealed that EC and calcium content of the river exceed their limits except for temperature and pH levels. Furthermore, EC and temperature were statistically different among the six sampling stations except for pH values. This study concludes that the river is saline due to the mixing of saltwater and surface water as the river is near to the sea and has high calcium content that can threaten the life of freshwater aquatic organisms.

Spatial Variation of Electrical Conductivity, Total Suspended Solids, and Total Dissolved Solids in the Batang Arau River, West Sumatera, Indonesia

This study aims are toanalyze the spatial variation of electrical conductivity (EC) values, total suspended solids (TSS), and total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations along the Batang Arau River. Water samples were collected from eight stations along the river at biweekly intervalsbetween March and May 2014. The results indicate an increasing trend in the value of three parameters from upstream to downstream, reflecting the effect of natural and anthropogenic activities along the river. The EC values were in the range of 173-5,097 μS/cm and had exceeded the water quality standard established by World Health Organisation (WHO) at the downstream. The TSS and TDS concentrations were in the range of 76-2,078 mg/L and 124-3,560 mg/L, respectively. The TSS concentrations at all stations had exceeded the river quality standard of class II established by Governor Regulation of West Sumatera, while the TDS concentrations had exceeded only at the downstream area. Significant spatial variation of the EC and TDS concentrations was observed between the upstream-midstream and the downstream but was not obtained along the river for the TSS concentrations. It indicates that the anthropogenic activities along the river affected the variability of EC and TDS, but not for TSS. Based on these results, reducing the number of sampling points into three stations could be performed for the EC and TDS, while TSS monitoring at only one station could be applied.

Assessing the Effects of Land Use on Surface Water Quality in the Lower uMfolozi Floodplain System, South Africa.

This study investigated the impacts of cultivation on water and soil quality in the lower uMfolozi floodplain system in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. We did this by assessing seasonal variations in purposefully selected water and soil properties in these two land-use systems. The observed values were statistically analysed by performing Student’s paired t-tests to determine seasonal trends in these variables. Results revealed significant seasonal differences in chloride and sodium concentrations and electrical conductivity (EC) and the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) with cultivated sites exhibiting higher values. Most of the analyzed chemical parameters were within acceptable limits specified by the South African agricultural-water-quality (SAWQ) water quality guidelines for irrigation except for sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), chloride, sodium and EC. EC, pH and nitrate content which were higher than the specified SAWQ limits in cultivated sites. Quantities of glyphosate, ametryn and imidacloprid could not be measured because they were below detectable limits. The study concludes that most water quality parameters met SAWQ’s standards. These results argue for concerted efforts to systematically monitor water and soil quality characteristics in this environment to enhance sustainability by providing timely information for management purposes.

EFFECTS OF LEACHING ON THE RECLAMATION OF SALINE SOILS AS AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT ORGANIC AND INORGANIC AMENDMENTS

Soil salinity, which poses one of the greatest threats to sustainable crop production worldwide, can be ameliorated through various approaches, such as leaching, mulching, and amendment application. The effects of leaching and amendments on saline soil reclamation have been studied separately, but their interaction is poorly elucidated. Therefore, a column experiment was designed with soils that were subjected to leaching with 2 and 4 pore volume (PV) of water and compared with non-leached soils (NLS) to observe the effects of leaching on saline soil and leachate characteristics under different organic (vermicompost [VC] and wood ash [WA]) and inorganic (zeolite) amendments at two different rates (1 and 2 g 100 g−1) and their combinations. Results revealed that the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil decreased, whereas the EC of the leachate increased as the PV of water increased. Regardless of the treatments, the concentrations of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) in the leachate increased. By contrast, their concentrations in the leached soils decreased as the PV of water increased. WA contributed to a significant increase (p < 0.01) in the EC and the concentrations of cations, especially K+ and Ca2+, in the soils and leachates. The higher the rates of the amendment, the greater the increment in the EC and cation concentrations. Incorporating amendments could be important sources of cations, thereby limiting the entry of Na+ into the exchange complex and facilitating leaching with percolating water. The response of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) in terms of yield parameters to 2 PV of leached soils was significantly better than that of NLS, suggesting that soil leaching could significantly influence plant functioning in highly saline soils. This study suggested that the irrigation of saline soils under different organic and inorganic amendments before cultivation might affect salt leaching and soil nutrient dynamics, thereby influencing plant growth and yield.

Electrical Conductivity, pH, Organic Matter and Texture of Selected Soils Around the Qatar University Campus

Assessment of soil quality by soil analysis is a valuable tool for a farm as it determines the inputs required for efficient and economical production. A proper soil test helps ensure the application of sufficient fertilizers to meet the requirements of the crop while taking advantage of the nutrients and conditions already present in the soil. Though soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter and texture are important features that determine the fertility of the soil, quantitative information on these properties are limited. The objective of the present study was to assess the pH, EC, organic matters and texture of four selected locations around the Qatar University campus including Biology Field (BF), Science Garden (SG), Greenhouse Inside (GHI) and Greenhouse Outside (GHO). We observed significant differences in the pH, EC and organic matter contents among the four locations. The highest pH was observed in SG and lowest in GHI whereas highest EC was observed in GHI and lowest in BF. Highest organic matter was found in GHI and lowest in BF. The soil texture of the BF and SG was sandy clay while that of GHI and GHO was loamy sand. Considering all four parameters analyzed in the present study, the GHI soil was found more suitable for plant growth.&#x0D; Res. Agric., Livest. Fish.7(3): 403-409, December 2020

Spatial assessment of major ion geochemistry in the groundwater around Suryapet Region, Southern Telangana, India

Twenty-two groundwater samples were picked up from the bore wells during the pre and post-monsoon seasons in and around the Suryapet region of the southern Telangana State, India. The samples were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrates (NO3−), sulfates (SO42−), carbonates (CO3−), bicarbonates (HCO3−), total hardness (TH), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), chloride (Cl−), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and fluoride (F−) to study the geochemistry of groundwater available in that region. EC concentration ranges from 570–5200 µS/cm and 640–4800 µS/cm with an average value of 2238.64 µS/cm and 1981.8 µS/cm for pre and post-monsoon seasons respectively. Wilcox classification indicates that the groundwater samples of pre and post-monsoon times showed low sodium hazard (S1–C1) as of 86% and 91% respectively, and moderate to high in salinity risk (C2–C3) for maximum samples. Piper trilinear plot was made to detect hydro-chemical facies by utilizing major anions and cations concentrations. Maximum of the samples belong to Ca2+–Mg2+–Cl−–SO42− and Na+–Cl−–SO42− hydro-chemical facies. Besides this, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out to understand the geochemistry of groundwater. The quality of the groundwater system is of high apprehension as potable water desires to have sustainable mineral content.

Vertical distribution of soil nutrients under different land use systems in Bangladesh

Soil depth can significantly influence the availability of nutrients in soil. An experiment was conducted with seven soil samples from seven land use types to observe the effect of soil depth on soil properties under various land use systems. Soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic matter, available phosphorus (P), available sulphur (S) and different forms of potassium (K) such as water soluble, exchangeable and non-exchangeable were determined from the soil samples collected from four soil depths (viz. 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 cm). Soil pH varied from 6.30-7.39 irrespective of depths and land uses and it increased with increasing soil depth. Electrical conductivity of the soils ranged from 42-310 µS cm-1 and organic matter status of most of the soils was very low to medium in level. Both EC and organic matter content decreased with the increase of soil depth. Available P concentration showed no specific changing trend with soil depth whereas available S concentration under different land use systems decreased with increasing soil depth. The concentrations of water soluble, exchangeable and non-exchangeable K in soils varied from 12.30-39.60, 20.90-53.16 and 163.30-684.30 mg kg-1, respectively and showed no specific changing pattern with soil depth. Water soluble K content was higher in rice growing fertilizer and manure-treated soil but higher exchangeable and non-exchangeable K contents were observed in banana growing soil. In rice growing soils, nutrient concentration is mostly higher in nitrogen (N), P and K + farm yard manure (FYM) - treated plots compared to rice growing control plots.

Durian husk wastes as low-cost adsorbent for physical pollutants removal: groundwater supply

Durian peel can be the main contributor to agricultural wastes and becomes an environmental problem when it is discarded into the landfill site or even burning it. The average of entire durian fruit weight is about 255,353 MT for all over the country. The loading rate of landfills is increasing, especially with the massive amount and size of the durian waste that requires a larger space to dispose of. Therefore, it is certainly important to utilize durian husk as an adsorbent to improve water quality, especially groundwater source. Groundwater commonly has a higher hardness level than surface water. The higher hardness in water becomes a major concern, especially in every cleaning task. This research aimed to investigate the potential of durian husk in reducing water hardness, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS). Durian husk was treated with NaOH solution to improve adsorption efficiency. Laboratory analyses such as the ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) titration method were performed for the water hardness, total dissolved solids, and conductivity concentrations respectively to test the performance of the removal efficiency before and after the treatments. As the results, the removal of hardness concentrations by durian husk has significantly dropped with dosage and settling time. However, not for TDS and EC concentrations removal, which it went sudden increased for a higher dosage. The novelty of this study is that it is the first-ever experiment using the real on-site samples in the field as for initial concentrations, different from other previous studies by lab-scale the synthetic hard water and most of them using the highest concentration of hardness which up to 700 mg/L of CaCO 3 as to find out the removal efficiency for water softening in water treatment using durian husk, compare to this study using a concentration that is too low within 300 mg/L and below.

Storage Procedures Affect pH, Electrical Conductivity, and Nutrient Concentrations of Pour-through Leachate from Pine Bark and Peat-based Substrates

The pour-through (PT) method is used in greenhouse and nursery production to monitor nutrient availability in soilless substrates. Efficacy of this method is based on the assumption that chemical properties of extracted solutions remain stable from the moment of collection until analysis. Extracted substrate solution can be analyzed directly in the greenhouse or sent to laboratories for complete nutritional analysis; thus, proper sample preservation methods (e.g., filtration and low temperatures) are critical for reducing sample contamination or degradation during storage. However, evidence of how these preservation methods affect chemical characteristics of PT samples is limited. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of storage time, storage temperature, and filtration of PT samples on pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient concentrations from pine bark– and peat-based substrates. PT extracts were obtained from liquid-fertilized fallow pots of either 100% milled pine bark (Expt. 1) or a 4 sphagnum peat: 1 perlite (by volume) substrate (Expt. 2). Aliquots of PT extract were either filtered or nonfiltered and then stored in plastic bottles at −22, 4, or 20 °C. EC, pH, and nutrient concentrations were analyzed at 0, 1, 7, and 30 days after PT sample collection. EC and pH in PT extracts of peat and pine bark, respectively, changed 1 day after collection. Storage time had the greatest effect on nutrient concentrations of samples stored at 20 °C. However, at day 30, nutrient concentrations had also changed in samples stored at 4 and −22 °C. Analytes that fluctuated most in both experiments and across all preservation treatments were dissolved organic carbon, total dissolved nitrogen, NO3−-N, and PO43−-P, whereas Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO42−-S were more stable in PT samples. This research suggests EC and pH should be analyzed immediately, whereas samples requiring nutrient analysis should be filtered immediately after collection, stored at 4 or −22 °C (preferably −22 °C), and analyzed within 7 days of collection.

Physicochemical Characteristics of the Okomu Wetland, Edo State, Nigeria

Water quality assessment was carried out within the 202 km2 Okomu National Park located within the 1,082km2Okomu Forest Reserve between January 2017 and December 2018. Water sampling was carried in ten compartments of approximately 1.6km2 each, covering Ponds, Stream and River, based on easy accessibility. No such study has been carried out for the Okomu Wetlands in the past three decades. Sampling protocols, laboratory analysis and quality control/quality assurance measures followed standard procedures. All physicochemical parameters showed significant (P &lt; 0.001) spatial variations. The maximum and minimum values obtained for physicochemical parameters of the Okomu Wetland are 23.6 and 38.0°C air temperature; 21.0 – 38°C water temperature; 0.15 – 1.02m water level; 16.7 – 150.7mg/l total dissolved Solids (TDS); 0.5 – 18.8mg/l total suspended Solids (TSS); 0.2 – 14.8mg/l turbidity; 40. 0 – 307.4µS/cm electrical conductivity (EC); 4.4 – 6.7 pH; 0.02 – 0.14mg/l salinity; 0.7 – 5.5mg/l dissolve oxygen (DO); 0.5 – 3.8mg/l biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); 1.5 – 120.2mg/l chemical oxygen demand (COD); 23.8 – 593.6mg/l bicarbonates (HCO3); 69.9 – 245.3mg/l Chlorine (Cl); 0.02 – 0.59mg/l nitrite (NO2); 0.11 – 2.34mg/l nitrate (NO3); 0.04 – 2.11mg/l ammonium-nitrogen (NH4N); 0.05 – 2.96mg/l sulphate (SO4); 0.09 – 9.2mg/l phosphorus (P); 0.20 – 2.72mg/l sodium (Na), 0.03 – 1.32mg/l potassium (K); 0.88 – 5.88mg/l calcium (Ca); 0.13 – 3.1mg/l magnesium (Mg); 5.8 – 18.9mg/l iron (Fe); 0.04 – 1.1mg/l manganese (Mn); 0.02 – 0.09mg/l copper (Cu); 0.93 – 6.0mg/l zinc (Zn); 0.01 – 2.9mg/l lead (Pb); 0.01 – 0.18mg/l cadmium (Cd); 0.06 – 4.0mg/l chromium (Cr); 0.01 – 0.15mg/l nickel (Ni); 0.01 – 11mg/l vanadium (V). Air and water temperatures were mostly influenced by forest canopy cover. pH levels indicate that the water bodies within the forested wetland are slightly acidic. Higher DO values were recorded in the Arhakhuan Stream and Okomu River (Agekpukpu and Iron bridge) than in the temporary ponds. BOD levels of greater than 1mg/l were observed which is indicative of slight levels of organic pollution. Higher concentrations of TDS, TSS, turbidity, EC, Colour, HCO3, NH4N, NO2, NO3, P, Na, K, Ca Mg and heavy metals were recorded in the temporary ponds than in the Stream and River. Research on water bodies within wetlands should be carried out routinely in order to monitor changes in the water conditions that could occur overtime whether natural or anthropogenic. This becomes even more pertinent in the light of glaring impacts of climate change and increasing environmental modifications.