Electrical Breakdown Measurements Research Articles

Deposition of high-quality, nanoscale SiO2 films and 3D structures

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is ubiquitous in biomedical diagnostics and other applications as a capture medium for nucleic acids and proteins. Diagnostic devices have seen rapid miniaturisation in recent years, due to the increased demand for portable point-of-care diagnostics. However, there are increasing challenges with incorporating SiO2 nanostructures into diagnostic devices, due to the complexity of nanostructured SiO2 synthesis, often involving etching and chemical vapour deposition under high vacuum conditions.We report a novel and straightforward method for deposition of high-quality, nanoscale SiO2 films and 3D SiO2 structures using thermal decomposition of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), in a furnace at atmospheric pressure at 500 °C. This method allows individual nanometre controllability of conformal pinhole-free layers on a variety of materials and morphologies. The temperature ramp rate is a key factor in determining the SiO2 deposit morphology, with slower ramp rates leading to highly conformal 2D films and faster ones yielding 3D nanodentrite structures. For the 2D films, the film thickness, as determined by spectroscopic ellipsometry and confirmed by SEM data, is shown to correlate excellently with initial PDMS source material mass in the thickness range 0.8–18 nm. Fits to ellipsometry models confirm that the refractive index of the deposited film matches the expected value for SiO2, while electrical breakdown measurements confirm that the breakdown strength of the films is comparable to that of high-quality thermal oxides. Depositions on high aspect ratio ZnO nanostructures are shown to be highly conformal, leading to core-shell ZnO-SiO2 nanostructures whose shell thickness is in excellent agreement with the expected values from deposition on planar substrates. At faster ramp rates an abrupt morphological transition is seen to a deposit which displays a 3D nanodentrite morphology. The possibilities for applications of both morphologies (and core-shell combinations with other nanostructured materials) in biosensing and related areas are briefly discussed, and the DNA capture capabilities of each nanostructure are measured. The high aspect ratio nanodendrite structures allow for significant DNA capture within microfluidic devices in the presence of low DNA concentrations, with a maximum average capture efficiency of 43.4 % achieved in the presence of 10 ng/mL of DNA, which is an improvement by a factor of ∼ 3 over planar Si surfaces. Improvements by factors of >10 over planar surfaces were achieved at higher DNA concentrations of 100 and 1000 ng/mL.

Size effect and electrical ageing of PDMS dielectric elastomer with competing failure modes

Large-scale dielectric elastomer generators dielectric elastomer generators (DEGs) such as those employed in wave energy converter projects require a significant volume of electrically stressed materials. Meanwhile, predictions of energy output from such systems are generally extrapolated from electrical and mechanical breakdown measurements performed on small scale samples, where the presence of small defects can be extremely small. This can lead to overly optimistic upscaled predictions for the performance and reliability of full-scale devices. In this study, multilayer DEGs were prepared to evaluate the dielectric breakdown strength of thin polydimethylsiloxane PDMS elastomer at different values of active areas. The results indicated the presence of two separate breakdown mechanisms resulting in an enhanced size effect and a reduced reliability for the larger samples. Electrical ageing tests were performed on three different sample geometries and the dielectric breakdown strength was found to be marginally affected by the time under stress. A Weibull competing failure model was applied to the distribution of experimental breakdowns and electrical reliability was accurately modeled over more than four decades of variation in the electrode area.

Charge Transport Measured Using the EGaIn Junction through Self-Assembled Monolayers Immersed in Organic Liquids

This paper describes measurements of charge transport by tunneling through molecular junctions comprising a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) supported by a template-stripped metal bottom electrode (MTS), which has been immersed in an organic liquid and contacted by a conical Ga2O3/EGaIn top electrode. These junctions formed in organic liquids are robust; they show stabilities and yields similar to those formed in air. We formed junctions under seven external environments: (I) air, (II) perfluorocarbons, (III) linear hydrocarbons, (IV) cyclic hydrocarbons, (V) aromatic compounds, (VI) large, irregularly shaped hydrocarbons, and (VII) dimethyl siloxanes. Several different lengths of SAMs of n-alkanethiolates, S(CH2)n-1CH3 with n = 4-18, and two different kinds of bottom electrodes (AgTS or AuTS) are employed to assess the mechanism underlying the observed changes in tunneling currents. Measurements of current density through junctions immersed in perfluorocarbons (II) are comparable to junctions measured in air. Junctions immersed in other organic liquids show reductions in the values of current density, compared to the values in air, ranging from 1 (III) to 5 orders of magnitude (IV). We interpret the most plausible mechanism for these reductions in current densities to be an increase in the length of the tunneling pathway, reflecting the formation of thin (0.5-1.5 nm) liquid films at the interface between the SAM and the Ga2O3/EGaIn electrode. Remarkably, the thickness of the liquid film─estimated by the simplified Simmons model, measurements of electrical breakdown of the junction, and simulations of molecular dynamics─is consistent with the existing observations of structured liquid layers that form between two flat interfaces from measurements obtained by the surface force apparatus. These results suggest the use of the EGaIn junction and measurements of charge transport by tunneling as a new form of surface analysis, with the applications in the study of near-surface, weak, molecular interactions and the behavior of liquid films adjacent to non-polar interfaces.

Dielectric breakdown of 2D muscovite mica

Localized electrical breakdown (BD) measurements are performed on 2D muscovite mica flakes of ~ 2 to 15 nm thickness using Conduction Atomic Force Microscopy (CAFM). To obtain robust BD data by CAFM, the probed locations are spaced sufficiently far apart (> 1 µm) to avoid mutual interference and the maximum current is set to a low value (< 1 nA) to ensure severe damage does not occur to the sample. The analyses reveals that 2D muscovite mica has high electrical breakdown strength (12 MV/cm or more) and low leakage current, comparable to 2D hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) of similar thickness. However, a significant difference compared to h-BN is the very low current necessary to avoid catastrophic damage during the BD event, even for very thin (2–3 nm) flakes. Further, for mica the BD transient always appear to be very abrupt, and no progressive BD process was definitively observed. These marked differences between mica and h-BN are attributed to the poor thermal conductivity of mica.

Understanding the Impact of Lime Stabilization on Expansive Soil for Grounding and Analysis Adopting LIBS

Stabilization of soil for grounding purposes has been performed by adding different wt% of lime. Electrical breakdown measurements under lightning impulse voltage showed a reduction in breakdown voltage and the time to breakdown with increment in the lime content in the soil. These parameters also increased with curing period for all concentrations of lime of stabilized soil samples. The results show that pH and electrical conductivity of the expansive soil increase as the lime content increases, but decrease with increasing the curing period. Mineralogical and micro-structural analysis has been made by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies and by scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis. The axial strength obtained from unconfined compressive strength (UCS) analysis, the plasma temperature and the electron number density calculated from Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) data tend to increase with increment in lime content as well as the curing period of the lime stabilized soil. Using univariate analysis, the normalized intensity ratio of Ca II peaks from LIBS spectral data are correlated with lime content in the soil samples at various curing periods. The partial least squares regression (PLSR) technique is successful in determining the soil parameters with the help of LIBS spectral data, at different curing periods with an R <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> value greater than 0.95 and the percentage RMSE value smaller than 4%.

Recoverable Electrical Breakdown Strength and Dielectric Constant in Ultralow-k Nanolattice Capacitors.

The dielectric reliability of low-k materials during mechanical deformation attracts tremendous attention, owing to the increasing demand for thin electronics to meet the ever-shrinking form factor of consumer products. However, the strong coupling between dielectric/electric and mechanical properties limits the use of low-k dielectrics in industrial applications. We report the leakage current and dielectric properties of a nanolattice capacitor during compressive stress cycling. Electrical breakdown measurements during the stress cycling, combined with a theoretical model and in situ mechanical experiments, provide insights to key breakdown mechanisms. Electrical breakdown occurs at nearly 50% strain, featuring a switch-like binary character, correlated with a transition from beam bending and buckling to collapse. Breakdown strength appears to recover after each cycle, concomitant with nanolattice's shape recovery. The compressive displacement at breakdown decreases with cycling due to permanently buckled beams, transforming the conduction mechanism from Schottky to Poole-Frankel emission. Remarkably, our capacitor with 99% porosity, k ∼ 1.09, is operative up to 200 V, whereas devices with 17% porous alumina films breakdown upon biasing based on a percolation model. Similarly with electrical breakdown, the dielectric constant of the capacitor is recoverable with five strain cycles and is stable under 25% compression. These outstanding capabilities of the nanolattice are essential for revolutionizing future flexible electronics.

Full silicone interpenetrating bi-networks with different organic groups attached to the silicon atoms

Mixed silicone interpenetrating networks have been prepared using two groups of siloxane polymers and copolymers as precursors in different combinations. Each combination chosen, after a good mixing in solution with cross-linking agents was processed into film, which has been stabilized through sequential crosslinking using separate chemical pathways: condensation with tetraethyl orthosilicate at room temperature for the first network and addition (hydrosilylation) at higher temperatures in the case of the second one. The morphology of the resulted materials was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mixing degrees of the two networks were estimated on the basis of the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) traces as well as by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The obtained films were characterized from point of view of the properties of interest for electromechanical applications by mechanical testing, dielectric spectroscopy and electrical breakdown measurements. The influence of the nature and content of the polar groups attached on the silicon on these characteristics was discussed.

Sustainable Technological Route to Produce Ceramic Electrical Insulators in Iraq

Locally attainable byproduct materials in Iraq were used to produce ceramic electrical insulators. The compositions are based on crushed used bricks, which are composed of fired local clay. Pulverized waste glass and water glass byproduct are also essential in the composition. Additionally, commercial grade caustic soda flakes is used as chemical activation agent. A series of five compositions is wet casted. The casts are cured via oven heating at 120°C for twelve hours. The cured ceramic bodies are subjected to physical, mechanical, heat conductivity and electrical breakdown measurements. The results are discussed in terms of quality and sustainability.

Electrical Breakdown of Nanowires

Instantaneous electrical breakdown measurements of GaN and Ag nanowires are performed by an in situ transmission electron microscopy method. Our results directly reveal the mechanism that typical thermally heated semiconductor nanowires break at the midpoint, while metallic nanowires breakdown near the two ends due to the stress induced by electromigration. The different breakdown mechanisms for the nanowires are caused by the different thermal and electrical properties of the materials.

Zirconia and hafnia films from single source molecular precursor compounds: Synthesis, characterization and insulating properties of potential high k-dielectrics

Abstract Novel hafnium and zirconium complexes with oximato ligands are used for chemical solution deposition of zirconia and hafnia thin films. X-ray diffraction and high resolution transmission electron microscopy reveal an amorphous microstructure. Scanning electron as well as atomic force microscopy show uniform and smooth films of both oxides. Electrical breakdown measurements are carried out in order to evaluate the application potential of the hafnia and zirconia thin films as dielectric layers in thin film transistors.

Thermal storage effects on AlGaN/GaN HEMT

The effects of thermal storage on GaN–HEMT devices grown on SiC substrate have been investigated by DC and pulsed electrical measurements, breakdown measurements (by means of a Transmission Line Pulser, TLP), and optical and electron microscopy. After 3000 h of thermal storage testing at 300 °C, only a limited reduction of the DC drain saturation current and of the transconductance peak was observed (20% and 25% decrease, respectively). However, pulsed measurements on aged devices clearly highlight a dramatic current collapse effect that has been attributed to a creation of surface traps in the gate-to-drain and gate-to-source access region. On-state breakdown characterization carried out on aged devices did not highlight any noticeable changes with respect to the untreated devices similarly to the DC characterization. Failure analyses have demonstrated that a loss of adhesion of the passivation layer was responsible for the observed trap formation. An improved passivation deposition process was therefore developed, including a surface cleaning procedure aimed at preventing passivation detaching. The devices fabricated using this new procedure do not show any enhancement of trapping effects up to 500 h of thermal stress at 300 °C.

Interaction of pyridinium bis-retinoid (A2E) with bilayer lipid membranes

The accumulation of lipofuscin granules within the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells is correlated with the progression of age-related macular degeneration. One of the fluorophores contained in lipofiscin granules is pyridinium bis-retinoid (A2E). To test its membrane–toxic effect, the interaction of A2E with bilayer lipid membranes (BLM) was studied. The incorporation of charged A2E molecules into the membranes has been detected as a change of either ζ-potential of multilayer liposomes or boundary potential of BLM. It was shown that the presence of up to 25 mol% of A2E did not destabilize the bilayers made of saturated phosphatidylcholine (PC). However, the destabilizing effect became very significant when BLM contained negatively charged lipids such as cardiolipin or phosphatidylserine. The electrical breakdown measurements revealed that the A2E-induced decrease of BLM stability was primarily associated with the growing probability of lipid pore formation. It was found from the measurements of boundary potential of BLM that exposure of A2E to light initiates its transformation into at least two products. One of them is epoxy-A2E, which, being hydrophilic, moves from the membrane into water solution. The other product is a non-identified hydrophobic substance. Illumination of A2E-containing BLM made from unsaturated PC by visible light caused the membrane damage presumably due to oxidation of these lipids by singlet oxygen generated by excited A2E molecules. However, this effect was very weak compared to the effect of known photosensitizers. The illumination of BLM with A2E also leads to the damage of gramicidin incorporated into the membrane, as was detected by measuring the conductance of channels formed by this peptide.

Linear and nonlinear regime of a random resistor network under biased percolation

We investigate the steady state of a two-dimensional random resistor network subjected to two competing biased percolations as a function of the bias strength. The properties of the linear and nonlinear regimes are studied by means of Monte Carlo simulations. In constant current conditions, a scaling relation is found between 〈 R〉/〈 R〉 0 and I/ I 0, where 〈 R〉 is the average network resistance, 〈 R〉 0 the Ohmic resistance and I 0 an appropriate threshold value for the onset of nonlinearity. A similar scaling relation is found also for the relative variance of resistance fluctuations. These results are in good agreement with electrical breakdown measurements performed in composite materials.

Increasing the dielectric breakdown strength of poly(ethylene terephthalate) films using a coated polyaniline layer

The dielectric strength of films made from poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) coated with a thin layer of polyaniline (PANI) was studied. The PANI layer was deposited on the PET films by the `in situ' chemical polymerization method. The PANI layer of the PANI/PET films was undoped in NH4OH 0.1 M solution and re-doped with aqueous HCl solution under different pH values varying from 1 to 10. Electric breakdown measurements were performed by applying a voltage ramp and the results showed a dependence of the dielectric strength on the pH of the doping solution due to the changes in the electrical conductivity of the PANI layer. The dielectric strength of PET/PANI films treated under higher pH conditions showed an electric strength about 30% larger than the PET films, since it leads to a non-conductive PANI layer.

Initiation of microwave-induced electrical breakdown of high-pressure gases

Measurements of microwave-induced electrical breakdown at 2.45 GHz in Ar, Kr, and Xe have been made in a tunable microwave cavity. The influence of UV illumination on gas breakdown at pressures up to 300 torr, and data on fiber initiator-induced breakdown above atmospheric pressure are presented. A marked decrease in the statistical spread in breakdown was observed with UV illumination, but the maximum pressures at which breakdown occurred with available microwave power, with and without UV illumination, were the same. To initiate breakdown in gases above 1 atm, a conducting fiber was used to enhance the applied macroscopic electric field at the fiber tip. Using 8-/spl mu/m diameter SiC fibers coated with 0.2-/spl mu/m-thick Pt, breakdown was obtained with pulses as short as 0.25 ms in the pressure range 1-3 atm for Ar, Kr, and Xe. The required microwave electric field at 2280 torr with one fiber was less than that at 200 torr without a fiber. The increase of the breakdown field with pressure was much slower than linear. The effect of fiber length, diameter, orientation, and conductivity, and of the number of fibers, on the required breakdown electric field, and fiber initiation in Cl/sub 2/ mixture gases, were also investigated.

Resistance and resistance fluctuations in random resistor networks under biased percolation.

We consider a two-dimensional random resistor network (RRN) in the presence of two competing biased processes consisting of the breaking and recovering of elementary resistors. These two processes are driven by the joint effects of an electrical bias and of the heat exchange with a thermal bath. The electrical bias is set up by applying a constant voltage or, alternatively, a constant current. Monte Carlo simulations are performed to analyze the network evolution in the full range of bias values. Depending on the bias strength, electrical failure or steady state are achieved. Here we investigate the steady state of the RRN focusing on the properties of the non-Ohmic regime. In constant-voltage conditions, a scaling relation is found between <R>/<R>(0) and V/V(0), where <R> is the average network resistance, <R>(0) the linear regime resistance, and V0 the threshold value for the onset of nonlinearity. A similar relation is found in constant-current conditions. The relative variance of resistance fluctuations also exhibits a strong nonlinearity whose properties are investigated. The power spectral density of resistance fluctuations presents a Lorentzian spectrum and the amplitude of fluctuations shows a significant non-Gaussian behavior in the prebreakdown region. These results compare well with electrical breakdown measurements in thin films of composites and of other conducting materials.

RESISTANCE NOISE NEAR TO ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN: STEADY STATE OF RANDOM NETWORKS AS A FUNCTION OF THE BIAS

A short review is presented of a recently developed computational approach which allows the study of the resistance noise over the full range of bias values, from the linear regime up to electrical breakdown. Resistance noise is described in terms of two competing processes in a random resistor network. The two processes are thermally activated and driven by an electrical bias. In the linear regime, a scaling relation has been found between the relative variance of resistance fluctuations and the average resistance. The value of the critical exponent is significantly higher than that associated with 1/f noise. In the nonlinear regime, occurring when the bias overcomes the threshold value, the relative variance of resistance fluctuations scales with the bias. Two regions can be identified in this regime: a moderate bias region and a pre-breakdown one. In the first region, the scaling exponent has been found independent of the values of the model parameters and of the bias conditions. A strong nonlinearity emerges in the pre-breakdown region which is also characterized by non-Gaussian noise. The results compare well with measurements of electrical breakdown in composites and with electromigration experiments in metallic lines.

Swift heavy ion-induced recrysallization of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structures

Buried Si 3N 4–Si interfaces and overlayer in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structures were improved by irradiation with 100 MeV 107Ag after the synthesis of buried silicon nitride layers by high dose nitrogen ion-implantation. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) depth profile analysis illustrates that the MeV heavy ions irradiation in the SOI structure, modifies the distribution of nitrogen that results in better stoichiometry of the buried silicon nitride layers and abrupt Si 3N 4–Si interfaces. Electron spin resonance (ESR) technique shows the improvement in the crystalline structure of the Si over layer. Current–voltage and high frequency capacitance–voltage ( C– V) characteristics were studied, and electrical breakdown measurements were performed on metal nitride silicon (MNS) structures fabricated after removing the Si over layer in the SOI structure. In the ion-beam irradiated SOI specimens, buried silicon nitride layer show a high breakdown field strength of 4.5–6.5 MV/cm as compared to that of 3.0–3.9 MV/cm in the unirradiated one. The C– V analysis of the MNS capacitors reveals that the buried Si 3N 4–Si substrate interface exhibits a better quality with reduced fixed insulator charge and interface state densities after the ion-beam irradiation. Mid-gap interface state density at the buried Si 3N 4–Si substrate interface was as low as 1.0×10 11 cm −2 V −2 after the ion-beam irradiation, which is comparable to that of silicon nitride films deposited on silicon (Si) by the conventional low pressure chemical vapor deposition technique. The role of MeV ion-beam irradiation in improving the properties of SOI structures has been discussed on the basis of various models.

Comparison of defect density measurements in magnetic tunnel junctions

Magnetic tunnel junctions may experience failure due to local shortcuts in the insulating layers of such devices. The quality of the insulating layers of these devices must be analyzed. We use electrodeposition to decorate pinholes and analyze the density of pinholes and pinhole precursors. Electrical breakdown measurements can also be performed on magnetic tunnel junctions to predict the probability of such devices failing. We discuss both experimental methods and compare the results obtained. It is observed that the two methods yield the same results for the areal defect density.

00/00920 Optical properties of sol-gel dip-coated Ta2O5 films for electrochromic applications

This paper reports on the optical and electrical characterisation of Ta2O5 thin films deposited by electron beam evaporation from sintered ultrapure Ta2O5 powders as source. The substrates were fused silica and aluminium-coated Si wafers to allow optical and electrical analysis respectively. Two samples were grown at temperatures of 100 °C and 200 °C, at partial O2 pressure of 5 × 10−2 Pa and thickness of 0.65 μm and 1.25 μm, respectively. The analysis pointed out that the two samples showed high electrical resistivity and that no noticeable optical absorption in the visible spectrum was found. Complex dielectric functions, electrical field breakdown, optical transmittance and direct gap measurements were made to provide minimum quality standards to produce Ta2O5 films for electro-optical devices.