Electrical Losses Research Articles

Electrical Performance, Loss Analysis, and Efficiency Potential of Industrial‐Type PERC, TOPCon, and SHJ Solar Cells: A Comparative Study

ABSTRACTCurrently, the efficiency of p‐type passivated emitter and rear contact (PERC) cells has been growing at an absolute efficiency of 0.5% per year and has reached 23%–23.5% in mass production while getting closer to its theoretical efficiency limit. n‐Type tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) and silicon heterojunction (SHJ) cells with their superior “passivating selective contacts” technology were the most interesting photovoltaics (PV) technology in the industry. The effect of different passivated contact layers with respect to their influence on the J0, J0,metal, ρc, and the carrier selectivity (S10) and the loss analysis and efficiency potential of industrial‐type PERC, TOPCon, and SHJ solar cells were studied and compared. The results showed that TOPCon structure with a high passivation performance and good optical performance is more suitable for bifacial solar cell and the highest theoretical limiting efficiency with metal shading on the n‐type Si wafer (ηb,e,h,m,max) can be achieved to 27.62%. Although SHJ structure with the highest passivation performance but the worst optical performance owing to the parasitic absorption of a‐Si:H layer and high contact resistivity, the value of ηb,e,h,m,max is 0.7% lower than that of TOPCon solar cells. PERC structure has superior optical performance than SHJ structure, but due to poor passivation performance, the ηb,e,h,m,max is only 26.42%. The next‐generation products may be heterojunction back‐contact (HBC) and TOPCon back‐contact (TBC) cells with high ηb,e,h,m,max of 28.12% and 27.99%, respectively. Exploiting a perfect passivation of the noncontact area, the wide process window and low cost are required and transferring these new concepts to industrial solar cell production will be the next major challenge.

Flexible wideband microwave meta-absorber with designable digital infrared and visible camouflage

With the widespread use of multi-spectrum detection technology, the stealth of a single frequency band cannot meet the practical application requirements. Recently, the investigation of wearable and insulated multi-spectrum compatible stealth technology has become urgent. The flexible and thermally isolated wideband microwave meta-absorber with infrared and visible camouflage has been proposed, fabricated, and measured. An infrared shielding layer (IRSL) and a radar absorbing layer (RAL) are the two main components of the absorber. IRSL is realized by specifically arranging the pre-designed patch structure with three different filling ratios, which can confuse the detection of thermal infrared in 3–14 μm. RAL is achieved by etching the structure of the lossy material to form electrical loss in plane and magnetic loss between layers, so as to realize the broadband absorption of microwave higher than 90 % from 6.2-22.2 GHz. In addition, the absorber employs flexible and thermally isolated materials, providing excellent high-temperature stability normally at temperatures up to 130 °C. These unique properties confirm the feasibility of the proposed strategy. To effectively adapt to different thermal camouflage environments, it is essential to create IR digital camouflage patterns. Moreover, the additional flexibility and thermal insulation characteristics make it powerful in compatible camouflage-stealth facilities when used in complex environments and a wide range of high temperatures.

Flexible polyurethane films based on porous Carbon/Ni composite for electromagnetic absorber, photothermal deicing, and sensor

Electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorbing coatings with deicing ability are highly attractive in extremely low temperature service circumstances. Here, a flexible, hydrophobic, and photothermal deicing EMW absorbing coating (PNP) were fabricated, by dispersing the pre-reduction porous carbon/Ni (PPC/Ni) fillers into polyurethane (PU) matrix. The re-reduction process enhanced the graphitization degree of carbon and crystallite sizes of Ni (111) facet, which boosted the electrical and magnetic loss property. Compared to PC/Ni, PPC/Ni can achieve its superior EMW absorption performance at lower carbonation temperature, and less filling ratio. Furthermore, relying on its promising EMW absorption property, an EM-driven strain sensor was designed by the resonance coupling of the patterned PNP. Consequently, these original results provide insight into the mechanism underlying pre-reduction’s influence on EMW absorption performance. This work offers a facile and low-cost way for designing next-generation electromagnetic (EM) absorbers that satisfy the requirements for EM packing, ice removal, and health monitoring.

Optimization of Electrical and Optical Losses in Thin c-Si Bifacial PERC Solar Cells to Module Level Through Modeling

Optimization of Electrical and Optical Losses in Thin c-Si Bifacial PERC Solar Cells to Module Level Through Modeling

Assessing the Impact of Catastrophic Electricity Loss on the Food Supply Chain

The food supply chain’s heavy reliance on electricity poses significant vulnerabilities in the event of prolonged and widespread power disruptions. This study introduces a system-dynamics model that integrates five critical infrastructures—electric grid, liquid fossil fuels, Internet, transportation, and human workforce—to evaluate the resilience of food supply chains to major power outages. We validated the model using the 2019 Venezuelan blackouts as a case study, demonstrating its predictive validity. We then explored how more extreme electricity losses would disrupt the supply chain. More specifically, we modeled the impact of a large-scale cyberattack on the US electric grid and a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) event. A cyberattack severely damaging the US electric grid and allowing for recovery within a few weeks or months would lead to substantial drops in food consumption. However, it would likely still be possible to provide adequate calories to everyone, assuming that food is equitably distributed. In contrast, a year-long recovery from a HEMP event affecting most of the continental United States could precipitate a state of famine. Our analysis represents a first attempt at quantifying how food availability progressively worsens as power outages extend over time. Our open-source model is made publicly available, and we encourage its application to other catastrophic scenarios beyond those specifically considered in this work (for example, extreme solar storms, high-lethality pandemics).

Ultrahigh efficiency and energy density in tri-layered ferroelectric polymer composites utilizing ultralow loading of micro-sized plates

Ferroelectric-based composites have demonstrated tremendous potential in electrostatic capacitor owing to their exceptional dielectric characteristics. However, it is extremely challenging to attain desirable energy density (Ue) and above 95% efficiency (η) under low electric fields in the ferroelectric polymer-based composites because of the dominating electrical conduction loss. Herein, ferroelectric polymer composites consisting of SrTiO3@SiO2 plates/(PVDF-co-HFP) as the inner layer and polycarbonate (PC) as the outer polymer layers are elaborately proposed. The vital role of the multiple interlaminar interfaces (electrode/dielectric interface and interlayer interface) on the reduction of conduction loss and improvement of corresponding energy storage properties of the ferroelectric polymer is verified by experimental and theoretical simulations. The resulting composite with an ultralow loading of SrTiO3@SiO2 plates (0.5 vol%) displays a record high capacitive performance (∼8.73 J/cm3) at above 95% η under the low electric field of 280 MV/m1, indicating an enormous ∼118% increment of the maximal Ue over the commercial bench-mark biaxially oriented polypropylene (∼4 J/cm3) and far outperforming those of the polymer-based dielectrics reported to date. Along with fast discharge time (9 ns), this contribution presents a versatile and competitive technology for fabricating composites with exceptional energy storage capabilities operating under low electric fields.

Enhancing the Overall Performance of Perovskite Solar Cells with a Nano-Pyramid Anti-Reflective Layer

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) still suffer from varying degrees of optical and electrical losses. To enhance the light decoupling and capture ability of Planar PSCs, an ultra-thin PSC structure with an Al2O3 pyramid anti-reflection layer (Al2O3 PARL) is proposed. The effect of the structure of the Al2O3 PARL on the photoelectric performance of PSCs was investigated by changing various parameters. Under the AM1.5 solar spectrum (300–800 nm), the average light absorption rates and quantum efficiency (QE) of PSCs containing pyramid-array textured rear layers (PARLs) were significantly higher than those of planar PSCs. The Al2O3 PARL-based PSCs achieved a light absorption rate of 96.05%. Additionally, electrical simulations were performed using the finite element method (FEM) to calculate the short-circuit current density (JSC), open-circuit voltage (VOC), and maximum power (Pmax). Based on the maximum value of the average light absorbance, the geometric structure of the Al2O3 pyramid PSCs was optimized, and the optimization results coincided with the JSC and QE results. The results of the electrical simulation indicated that the maximum JSC was 23.54 mA/cm2. Additionally, the JSC of the Al2O3 pyramid PSCs was 22.73% higher than that of planar PSCs, resulting in a photoelectric conversion efficiency (PCE) of 24.34%. As a result, the photoelectric conversion rate of the solar cells increased from 14.01% to 17.19%. These findings suggest that the presence of the Al2O3 PARL enhanced photon absorption, leading to an increase in electron–hole pairs and ultimately improving the photocurrent of the solar cells.

The impact of energy (Electricity) losses on load capacity factor: A dynamic ARDL-based evidence from Pakistan

The energy-environment interplay has raised significant concerns among policymakers and experts, with the global shift towards renewable energy being hailed as a key solution to reduce pollution emissions. However, in addition to energy production, the efficient transmission and distribution of electricity is also important which also poses considerable challenges to environmental sustainability. This study aims to investigate the effect of electricity losses on environmental sustainability measured by load capacity factor (LCF). This study uses the DARDL (DARDL) method and Kernel-based Regularized Least Squares (KRLS) to analyze the influence of electricity losses, foreign direct investment (FDI), economic growth, and industrial output on LCF in Pakistan from 1981 to 2022. The electricity losses significantly undermine environmental sustainability by reducing LCF. However, FDI positively influences LCF, but economic growth and industrial output exert a detrimental effect. Additionally, the study observes that both positive and negative counterfactual 10 % shocks in electricity losses result in negative and positive impacts on LCF. Whereas, 10 % positive counterfactual shocks in FDI positively affect LCF. KRLS analysis confirms the robustness of the DARDL estimates. The study underscores that efficient energy transmission and distribution is pivotal in safeguarding environmental sustainability.

Dynamic performance enhancement in 2D and 3D curved flexible photovoltaic modules: Mismatch loss analysis and cell interconnection configurations optimization

The integration of photovoltaic (PV) technology into curved-surface buildings holds promise for energy-efficient eco-cities. However, the surface irradiance field of curved PV modules is uneven, and the distribution varies with the relative position to the sun and the surface shape. In this study, the dynamic irradiance field distributions of 2D and 3D curved PV modules are investigated. Based on this, 3 PV cell interconnection methods are proposed in conjunction with the irradiance balance principle. The electrical performance and power loss mechanisms are analyzed, and the dynamic adaptability, orientation adaptability, and geometric adaptability are evaluated. The results show diverse irradiance field patterns under different central angle conditions: uniform distribution in the north-south or east-west direction, while Gaussian distribution in other directions. Appropriate PV cell interconnection methods for 2D curved PV modules can effectively reduce mismatch losses, demonstrating significant enhancement in power output, up to 1721.21 Wh and 1604.10 Wh respectively. However, for 3D curved PV modules, the 3 interconnection methods fail to effectively adapt to the dynamic variation in irradiance, thus unable to fully exploit the power generation potential. In-depth investigation of mismatch losses in this study contributes to improving the reliability and economic viability of curved PV module, promoting its commercial application.

Honeycomb network structure constructed by silver nanoparticles achieving negative permittivity at low percolation threshold

Continuous conductive network is associated with the percolation effect, yet the method of fabricating network structure at low content is still a challenge. Herein, this work proposed a “honeycomb” structure via hot pressing to realize weak negative permittivity at low percolation threshold. By polydopamine (PDA) self-polymerization and silver mirror reaction plating, Ag nanoparticles coated polystyrene (PS) microsphere (PS@PDA@Ag) was prepared. Through hot pressing, the microspheres were compressed into “honeycomb”. The percolation threshold was reduced because the thin silver layer oscillated at low frequency plasma. Besides, by controlling the slivering time, weak negative permittivity in the range of −139 to −95 was observed and the percolation threshold was merely 2.23 vol%. The ac conductivity increased by four orders of magnitude and the thermal conductivity enhanced 79.08 %. The electric field and power loss density were simulated by finite element method. More than 100 V/m of electric field mode and 3 × 1011 W/m3 of power loss density were presented, explaining the generation of negative permittivity and the enhancement of dielectric loss. This work presented a method of achieving weak negative dielectric via honeycomb structure, and provided a novel perspective for the development of metal-based metacomposites.

Distribution Expansion Planning of Electrical Networks Considering Electrical Losses and Financial Losses Due to Voltage Sags and Interruptions

Currently, distribution system planning is crucial to meet both the present and future electricity needs of customers with minimal investments. This paper introduces a novel methodology to solve the distribution expansion planning problem by employing a heuristic based on genetic algorithms (GA). The proposed GA aims to minimize investment costs, electrical losses, and financial losses due to voltage sags and power interruptions. This GA is applied in the 18-busbar network with three planning stages. The results show that the GA deals with efficiency with the multi-objective problem obtaining solutions with reduced iterations and with minimum investments considering electrical losses, and financial losses.

Unveiling Energy Conversion Mechanisms and Regulation Strategies in Perovskite Solar Cells.

Despite recent revolutionary advancements in photovoltaic (PV) technology, further improving cell efficiencies toward their Shockley-Queisser (SQ) limits remains challenging due to inherent optical, electrical, and thermal losses. Currently, most research focuses on improving optical and electrical performance through maximizing spectral utilization and suppressing carrier recombination losses, while there is a serious lack of effective opto-electro-thermal coupled management, which, however, is crucial for further improving PV performance and the practical application of PV devices. In this article, the energy conversion and loss processes of a PV device (with a specific focus on perovskite solar cells) are detailed under both steady-state and transient processes through rigorous opto-electro-thermal coupling simulation. By innovatively coupling multi-physical behaviors of photon management, carrier/ion transport, and thermodynamics, it meticulously quantifies and analyzes energy losses across optical, electrical, and thermal domains, identifies heat components amenable to regulation, and proposes specific regulatory means, evaluates their impact on device efficiency and operating temperature, offering valuable insights to advance PV technology for practical applications.

A Methodology for Identifying Commercial Electricity Losses

A Methodology for Identifying Commercial Electricity Losses

Local charge regulation via selenium vacancies engineering in dielectric cobalt diselenide with enhanced microwave absorption

The weak electromagnetic loss capability of the single semiconductor material is difficult to meet the complicated electromagnetic environment nowadays, so vacancy engineering is employed to optimize the dielectric loss capability of CoSe2. Selenium vacancies are introduced into CoSe2 by re-annealing treatment, and the test results show that the selenium vacancies concentration enlarged with annealing temperature. The formation of selenium vacancies introduces a localized state in CoSe2, which enhances the capability of CoSe2 to trap charge carriers, and the increased conductivity contributes to the enhancement of the dielectric loss capability. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations demonstrate that the selenium vacancies disrupt the original charge equilibrium distribution of the CoSe2, and the non-recombined positive and negative charge centers induce a strong electric dipole polarization loss. Benefiting from the optimization of CoSe2 dielectric loss by the selenium vacancies engineering, RLmin of CoSe2-600 reaches −30.73 dB and the effective absorption bandwidth reaches 4.00 GHz at 1.8 mm. This study provides a simple and effective solution to optimize the microwave absorption performance of single-component microwave absorption materials.

Electromagnetic properties of coal using microstrip and an algorithm based on the Nicolson-Ross-Weir method

The work implements an experimental methodology to find the dielectric parameters: electrical permittivity, effective permittivity, magnetic permeability, conductivity, absorption coefficient, impedance, and loss tangent of bituminous coal from the municipality of Morcá and Tópaga belonging to the Sogamoso-Jericó sub-basin of the Guaduas formation, one of the most important coal reserves in Colombia. The methodology, known for its efficiency, includes constructing a microstrip-type circuit, measuring scattering parameters or S-parameters at frequencies between 300 kHz and 1 GHz with a vector network analyzer, and extracting electromagnetic properties using the Nicolson-Ross-Weir algorithm. The implemented algorithm allowed us to see the behavior of the coal in a fraction of the ultra-high frequency band and to find quickly and easily the approximate values of the parameters as a function of frequency, which are very important for investigations in mathematical modeling and computational electromagnetics. The results show that the real and imaginary components of the relative dielectric permittivity decrease with increasing frequency, and the absorption coefficient and the loss tangent of the coal increase as a function of frequency, indicating that the coal behaves as a dissipative dielectric.

Calculation of electrical energy losses in distribution networks for power supply using oil and vacuum circuit breakers

A method for approximate estimation of load losses in distribution networks from 6 to 10 kV, as well as for lower voltage networks, has been proposed. The main advantage of this method is that the root mean square current is calculated only once for a series of calculations. This approach significantly reduces the time required for calculations and improves their accuracy, as it eliminates the need for multiple determinations of the root mean square current for each individual calculation. The proposed approach contributes to a better understanding of the influence of various factors on load losses, which allows for more effective planning and management of distribution networks. This is particularly important in the context of increasing loads on electrical networks and higher demands for their reliability and efficiency. In the calculation of electrical energy losses in distribution networks from 6 to 10 kV, methods that use generalized coefficients of electrical circuits and operating modes in the form of regression equations are widely applied. The most significant and independent factors, such as the input of active energy, total line length, number of line sections, total number of transformers, and their total installed capacity, must be taken into account and are included in the calculation equation. Additionally, the components used and their regular maintenance play an important role in electrical energy losses in electrical networks. The main direction of research is the optimization of distribution network parameters, taking into account the latest technologies and materials, as well as the implementation of automated monitoring and control systems that will allow timely detection and elimination of problems associated with electrical energy losses. The proposed method for estimating load losses in distribution networks is a promising direction for the development of the energy sector, which will contribute to improving the efficiency and reliability of electrical networks, as well as reducing the costs of their operation and maintenance.

Construction of the structure of rural electric networks taking into account the availability of renewable sources of electricity

It is noted that although the share of renewable electricity sources continues to grow and develop rapidly, the industry still faces many challenges, including how to continue to reduce electricity losses and annualized costs, improve operation and maintenance efficiency, maintain grid stability, ensure safety and reliability of the power supply system containing renewable sources of electrical energy. It is shown that an effective solution to these problems is possible only on the basis of the analysis of the prospects for the development of local electric power systems that contain renewable sources of electric energy, the development of technical and organizational support mechanisms that will contribute to the construction of modern system (schematic) solutions. It is proposed to apply the potential surface method for building the optimal structure of the rural electrical network during its design and modernization in the presence of renewable sources of electrical energy, which allows optimizing the structure of the network from the point of view of electrical energy losses and reducing annualized costs. The algorithm for forming the structure of power supply systems is described, which implements the simultaneous solution of the tasks of determining the number of load nodes, distributing electrical receivers between them, determining the design of power sources, taking into account the discreteness of the design of system elements. The results of numerical modeling based on the proposed algorithm are presented on the example of solving the problem of reconstruction of a section of the rural electricity network.

Use of reactive power compensation devices in implementation of distributed generation

In Ukraine, a gradual reduction of electricity production at thermal power plants is planned due to the development of renewable sources of electricity. Small hydraulic power plants are being restored, solar power plants and wind power plants are being built. This will allow solving the existing problems of the domestic energy industry regarding the shortage of fuel resources, energy security and reducing the level of harmful effects on the environment caused by the operation of traditional sources of electricity. There is a trend of transition from a purely centralized electricity supply to a combined one, when the number of local decentralized sources of electricity directly in distribution networks is increasing. In this way, distribution electric networks are gradually transformed into a network with features characteristic of a local electric system, which receives power both from its own distribution electric networks and from a centralized source - the electric power system. Renewable energy has a number of advantages compared to traditional energy, but there are also disadvantages. Among them, the complications of the functioning of electrical networks should be highlighted in the event of an increase in the capacities of renewable sources of electricity installed in them and the instability of generation due to their natural dependence on meteorological conditions, if we talk more specifically about technical shortcomings, then this concerns - sinusoidal of voltages and currents and voltage deviations, quality assurance of electricity, which directly depends on ensuring the balance of active and reactive power in the electrical system. Hence the need for coordinated power supply from renewable sources of electricity and substations of the power system. At the same time, there is a gradual transition from the wholesale electricity market of a single buyer to the balancing market of electricity and electricity supply under bilateral agreements, as well as the introduction of market management methods. This article discusses measures to reduce electrical energy losses, limit voltage deviation, improve the quality of electrical energy, and compensate for the reactive power of local loads due to the introduction of reactive power compensation devices together with renewable sources of electricity and facilitating their integration into the power grid.

Development of a conceptual model for management of technological losses of electricity in distribution networks 150-0.38 kV

The work developed a conceptual model of the process of managing the technological costs of electrical energy in 150-0.38kV distribution networks. The relevance and necessity of developing a conceptual model of the process of managing the technological costs of electricity, which is carried out in relation to the system of distribution of electrical energy (or the electrical distribution system) as a whole, including distribution electrical networks of 150-0.38 kV, is analyzed. The paper proposes a conceptual decomposition, considers the description and formalization of the power distribution system management process based on the criterion of reducing the technological costs of electricity. The proposed conceptual model describes the process of managing the technological costs of electricity in the power distribution system, as a process of regular improvement (optimization) of the functioning of the power distribution system and allows further optimization and automation of the process of managing the technological costs of electricity in the power distribution system, in order to achieve higher levels of energy efficiency of its functioning. It is shown that this model can be used to solve the tasks of not only strategic and tactical management (in terms of years and months) when forming development plans and current operation of distribution systems, but also operational optimization of technological costs of electricity at the pace of the process. Provided that the appropriate software is developed (including the forecasting of power distribution system modes and external environmental influences), the system for managing the technological costs of electrical energy is represented by three control loops that correspond to the stages of its development. Processes and information links between them are shown for each control loop. Each process in the conceptual model of the management of technological costs of electric energy has its own formal representation through generalized functional dependencies, and the information links between the processes correspond to the arguments and values of these functions. The conceptual model describes the process of managing the technological costs of electrical energy in the power distribution system as a process of regular improvement (optimization) of its functioning through increasing its energy efficiency.

Optically transparent highly conductive contact based on ITO and copper metallization for solar cells

This paper presents the results of obtaining and studying the electrical and optical characteristics of an optically transparent highly conductive Ni/Cu/Ti/ITO contact in order to reduce electrical resistance losses on the front side of the silicon solar cell. The topology of the contact metallization is a square 50 × 50 mm2 with an interdigitated electrode structure. A Ni/Cu/Ti contact metallization formed on ITO layer reduces the surface resistance by more than 60 times. It has been shown that the use of a Ni/Cu/Ti contact with a finger thickness of at least 1.5 μm and a width of 17 μm was formed is a good alternative to traditional contacts for silicon solar cells based on silver paste.