Perception Of Effort Research Articles

Mental fatigue increases perception of effort but does not compromise the inhibitory control of football referees during a match simulation physical task.

Executive functioning (EF) in referees is associated with their decision-making during a match and can be affected by mental fatigue (MF), a psychobiological state induced by prolonged periods of cognitive activity or high cognitive demand within a short timeframe. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of MF on EF and the perception of effort during a physical task for football referees. Twelve male professional football referees were recruited (32±7.3years; 1.75±0.06cm; 85±13.32kg; 41.4±5.92mLkg-1min-1 VO2max), visiting the laboratory on three occasions: one for characterization and familiarization and two experimental manipulations: high cognitive load (MF) and low cognitive load. After manipulations, they performed a physical task designed to replicate the physical demands of an official match. During the physical task, executive functioning was tested with a reaction time task and the ratings of perceived effort were assessed using subjective scales. The results revealed no effect of MF on response time performance (p=0.395). However, higher perceptions of effort were observed in the high cognitive load condition (p=0.018), which may impact physical performance. Despite the alteration in the perception of effort due to mental fatigue, executive function performance of football referees remained unimpaired.

On Your Mark, Get Set, Choose! A Randomized Cross-Over Study Comparing Fixed and Self-Selected Rest Periods in Interval Running Among Professional Female Soccer Players

BackgroundStudies on rest durations during high-intensity interval training (HIIT) often compare fixed and self-selected (SS) rest allocation approaches. Frequently, the rest duration under SS conditions is unlimited, leading to inconsistent total rest durations compared to fixed rest conditions. To address this limitation, we recently compared fixed and SS rest conditions during cycling HIIT sessions, while keeping the total rest duration equivalent. However, our protocol required athletes to divide a long total rest duration (720 s) across nine intervals, which may have been overly cognitively demanding. The current study aimed to explore the effects of the SS approach with a simplified rest allocation task on performance, physiological, and psychological outcomes.MethodsFollowing a familiarization session, 24 professional female soccer players completed two running HIIT sessions on a non-motorized treadmill. Each session consisted of twelve 15 s intervals, divided into three blocks, with the goal of maximizing the distance covered. In both conditions, the between-interval rest duration per block amounted to 270 s. In the fixed condition, the rest was uniformly allocated to 90 s between each interval, whereas in the SS condition, the athletes chose how to allocate the entirety of the 270 s of rest. We compared the following outcomes: distance, heart rate, perception of fatigue, effort, autonomy, enjoyment, boredom, and athletes’ preferences. Outcomes were compared using aggregated measures via paired univariate tests, and across the intervals via mixed-effects models.ResultsWe observed comparable results in most outcomes with the exception of higher autonomy (1–15 points) in the SS condition (mean difference = 2.1, 95%CI (0.9, 3.3) points) and a negligibly higher heart rate in the SS condition when comparing the observations across intervals (estimate = 2.5, 95%CI (0.9, 4.2) beats × min−1). Additionally, participants chose to rest for longer durations as the block progressed. Finally, the majority of participants (65%) favored the SS condition.ConclusionThis study further solidifies that SS and fixed approaches with matched total rest durations result in similar performance, physiological, and psychological responses. This effect persists even when the total rest duration required to be allocated is relatively short. Therefore, coaches and trainees can choose either approach based on their preferences and training goals.

Subjective perception of effort affects the way we move.

Subjective perception of effort affects the way we move.

Sleep Deprivation in Healthy Males Increases Muscle Afferents, Impairing Motor Preparation and Reducing Endurance.

Sleep deprivation (SD) reduces time to task failure during endurance exercises. The aim of our work was to study the effect of acute SD on the endurance of a skeletal hand muscle and to investigate cortical motor drive to muscle and perception of effort. Origin of the early exhaustion after SD might be insufficient cortical motor drive to muscle or motor inhibition because of excessive perception of effort. The supplementary motor area, the medial part of the premotor cortex, links the motor and sensory cortexes, prepares for voluntary movements, and may play a central role in the pathophysiology of impaired muscle endurance after SD. Supplementary motor area can be noninvasively assessed by electromyogram measuring amplitude of premotor potentials before hand movements. We investigated the effect of SD on muscle endurance in healthy volunteers performing moderate hand exercise by monitoring supplementary motor area activation and muscle afferents. Two sessions were performed, in random order, one after a normal sleep night and the other after a sleepless night. Twenty healthy young men were included in this study. Sleep deprivation reduced time to task failure by 11%. Supplementary motor area activation was altered throughout the task and effort perception was increased. Our results suggest that SD reduces skeletal muscle endurance by increasing the effects of muscle afferents on the supplementary motor area. Sleep alterations frequently reported in chronic diseases might reduce patients' capacity to achieve the low-intensity motor exercises required in everyday life. Our results should lead to the search for sleep disorders in patients with chronic pathology.

The perception of effort as a driver of gender inequality: institutional and social insights for female entrepreneurship

The perception of effort as a driver of gender inequality: institutional and social insights for female entrepreneurship

Stiffness of elastic cuffs affects physiological and perceptual responses but not motor performance fatigue during low external load resistance exercise with practical blood flow restriction

ABSTRACT Practical blood flow restriction (pBFR), using non-pneumatic elastic cuffs, is a feasible and cost-effective alternative to pneumatic systems. There is evidence that cuff stiffness influences haemodynamic and perceptual responses in the upper body during rest. However, the impact of cuff stiffness during exercise is still unknown. Therefore, this study investigated the influence of cuff stiffness on physiological, perceptual, and performance changes during exercise. In a randomized and counterbalanced order, ten recreationally active males performed four sets of unilateral elbow flexions at 20% of individuals’ one-repetition-maximum with two elastic cuffs of different stiffness (low stiffness cuff [LS] and high stiffness cuff [HS]) each applied with two different overlaps (10% and 20% overlap in relation to the limb circumference) as well as a control condition without pBFR. Before and after exercise, maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque was measured to assess motor performance fatigue. During exercise, muscle oxygen saturation of the biceps brachii as well as effort and exercise-induced muscle pain perception were recorded. Statistical analysis revealed that motor performance fatigue was not different between conditions (BF10 = 0.289). The decline in muscle oxygen saturation (BF10 = 8.508 and BF10 = 1039.543) as well as effort (BF10 = 2646.104 and BF10 = 2.773∙106) and exercise-induced muscle pain perception (BF10 = 14087.983 and BF10 = 7.306∙109) were higher when using the stiffer cuff at 10% and 20% overlap, respectively. Conclusively, physiological and perceptual responses but not motor performance fatigue were affected by cuff stiffness when equal relative overlaps were applied.

Understanding the Impact of Visual and Kinematic Information on the Perception of Physicality Errors

Errors that arise due to a mismatch in the dynamics of a person’s motion and the visualized movements of their avatar in virtual reality are termed “physicality errors” to distinguish them from simple physical errors, such as footskate. Physicality errors involve plausible motions, but with dynamic inconsistencies. Even with perfect tracking and ideal virtual worlds, such errors are inevitable in virtual reality whenever a person adopts an avatar that does not match their own proportions or lifts a virtual object that appears heavier than the movement of their hand. This study investigates people’s sensitivity to physicality errors to understand when they are likely to be noticeable and need to be mitigated. It uses a simple, well-understood exercise of a dumbbell lift to explore the impact of motion kinematics and varied sources of visual information, including changing body size, changing the size of manipulated objects, and displaying muscular strain. Results suggest that kinematic (motion) information has a dominant impact on perception of effort, but visual information, particularly the visual size of the lifted object, has a strong impact on perceived weight. This can lead to perceptual mismatches that reduce perceived naturalness. Small errors may not be noticeable, but large errors reduce naturalness. Further results are discussed, which inform the requirements for animation algorithms.

Effects of cryo-facial mask on running performance in amateur middle-distance runners

The excess heat accumulated during exercise can lead to stress-induced fatigue, possibly impairing athletic performance. Various precooling techniques have been applied to enhance thermal comfort, reduce perception of effort, and improve endurance. In this randomized crossover study, twelve male amateur middle-distance runners (age: 33.69 ± 5.9 years; body mass: 71.9 ± 4.4 kg; height: 178.4 ± 5.6 cm; V˙O2 peak: 63.3 ± 5.6 mL min−1·kg−1) wore a facial cooling mask before a time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test on a treadmill, under cryostimulation or control conditions. The running performance comprised also two constant load trials, one conducted before and another after wearing the mask, both performed at the velocity of the first ventilatory threshold. Under cryostimulation condition, the TTE was 13 % higher than the control condition (p = 0.0049; d = −0.19) with a significant main effect of time for both ratings of perceived exertion (F1, 22 = 50.10; p < 0.0001; η2p = 0.69) and heart rate (F1, 22 = 31.53; p < 0.0001; η2p = 0.59). A significant interaction “condition × time” was found for facial skin temperature (F2, 44 = 36.93; p < 0.0001; η2p = 0.63) and for heart rate during the constant load trial after wearing the mask (F1, 22 = 5.90; p = 0.0238; η2p = 0.21). The localized cryostimulation provided by the mask lowered the skin temperature on the face, potentially mitigating the negative effects of heat stress during running. Incorporating the cryo-facial mask as part of a pre-exercise routine for runners may offer a practical and convenient method to optimize performance and enhance overall training outcomes.

Assessment of Perceived Effort Through On-Field Hydration Monitoring: A Case Analysis.

This case report examines the correlation between hydration, weight variation, and perceived effort in a 43-year-old amateur athlete during a self-supported 81.5 km crossing of Death Valley, completed over 3 days with significant elevation changes. Studies have shown that a body mass loss greater than 2-3% can lead to an increased perception of effort and a decline in performance. Specifically, during passive and active heat exposures, the average body mass loss was found to be 1.4 ± 0.3% and 4.1 ± 0.7%, respectively. Salivary osmolarity has demonstrated a sensitivity of 86% and specificity of 91% in diagnosing dehydration of ≥ 2%, suggesting its potential as a non-invasive indicator of hydration status. The subject monitored their own body weight, hydration (via salivary osmolarity), and perceived effort using a rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale. Nutritional intake included isocaloric meals and nutritional bars, and hydration was managed using water and a hydroelectrolytic solution. Key bioimpedance parameters were measured to assess body composition and hydration status. A progressive decrease in body weight correlated with an increase in perceived effort (RPE score) and salivary osmolarity. Resistance (Rx) remained stable, while reactance (Xc) showed a biphasic trend and was inversely correlated with the sodium/potassium ratio (NAK). There were significant linear correlations between perceived effort and both weight loss and salivary osmolarity, indicating that salivary osmolarity is a potential early predictor of these changes. The findings highlight a linear correlation between weight loss, perceived effort, and salivary osmolarity, suggesting that monitoring salivary osmolarity would be useful for the field assessment of hydration and exertion. Further research with larger populations is necessary to validate these observations.

Physical activity and exercise intensity terminology: a joint American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) expert statement and exercise and sport science Australia (ESSA) consensus statement

The evidence supporting the many beneficial effects of physical activity, including exercise, is overwhelming. This has led to numerous publications, statements, and position stands providing evidence-based recommendations to realise the performance-enhancing and therapeutic benefits of exercise. However, one factor hampering research and limiting the adoption of these recommendations is the inconsistent use of terminology associated with different exercise intensities. The goal of this international group of researchers and practitioners was to propose standardised physical activity and exercise intensity terminology that has utility across all ages, sexes, genders, physical abilities, conditions, applications, and activities. After much discussion, we propose a standard terminology for physical activity, exercise, and sport and human performance comprising five exercise intensities: Very Low, Low, Moderate, High, and Very High. We also propose five different descriptors for the perception of effort that align with the five intensities we have suggested: very easy, easy, somewhat hard, hard, and very hard. To enable consistent use of these descriptors with both cardiorespiratory and resistance exercise, we suggest not using descriptors such as light, heavy, weak, or strong (which might be perceived as only being applicable to describing load). We appreciate that some fields have long-established terminology and may be reluctant to change. Nonetheless, at a minimum, the terminology proposed here allows for more clarity when comparing the different exercise intensity descriptors currently used by different fields. Finally, we hope this will be an important “first step” in harmonising the descriptions of exercise intensity across the fields of physical activity for public health, exercise science, and sport science.

Patient Perception of Mental Effort in Voice Therapy

ObjectiveOne challenge in voice therapy is that mastering new vocal techniques is inherently cognitively effortful. While effort is critical for learning, it can also lead to frustration and reduced patient engagement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between patient-perception of voice handicap and mental effort in voice therapy, and to determine if different therapy approaches and stimuli elicit different perceptions of mental effort. MethodsA non-experimental, prospective investigation was conducted with adult patients receiving voice therapy. Prior to therapy initiation, patients completed the Voice Handicap Index-10 (VHI-10) to quantify perceived severity of their voice disorders. To assess mental effort, a Borg mental effort scale and the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) were administered following each therapy session. Therapy type and treatment stimulus/level of treatment hierarchy was documented for each session. Kruskal-Wallis H-test was used to compare differences in baseline VHI-10 and mental effort among voice disorder diagnoses. Pairwise comparisons, linear random-intercept mixed-effects model, and generalized estimating equation method were used to determine correlation between VHI-10 and mental effort, and therapy type, stimulus, and effort. ResultsTwenty-seven participants (89% female, 60% white) completed the study. There was no significant difference in VHI-10 or baseline perceptions of mental effort between races or among voice disorder diagnoses. There was a significant positive correlation between VHI-10 scores and session 1 mental effort. There was no significant difference in effort ratings among therapy types, but effort was rated as significantly greater for therapy stimuli that involved connected speech practice than other stimuli. Perceived mental effort significantly decreased over time. DiscussionVoice therapy imposes a cognitive load on the patient, and is particularly challenging for individuals with more severely perceived voice disorders. Further, patients think voice treatment approaches that utilize connected speech stimuli are more effortful than those that use simple stimuli, regardless of treatment target (e.g. resonance, flow).

The Influence of Mental Fatigue on Physical Performance and Its Relationship with Rating Perceived Effort and Enjoyment in Older Adults

ABSTRACT The study investigated the influence of mental fatigue on older people’s enjoyment during a series of physical exercises. Using a randomized cross-over design, participants (n = 35) completed a 6-minute walking test − 6MWT, a Timed Up and Go—TUG test and three sets of knee extension exercise (first set: KE1, second set: KE2, third set: KE3) under two experimental conditions (control or mental fatigue). The Nonparametric Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Factorial Experiments was used to compare the number of repetitions performed during three sets of resistance exercise between conditions. The same analysis method was applied to compare the perception of effort and enjoyment across five moments (Post-6MWT, Post-TUG, Post-KE1, Post-KE2, Post-KE3) and two conditions and the Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) across four moments (baseline, Pre-6MWT, Pre-TUG, Pre-KE) and two conditions. Mental fatigue did not affect the physical function, perception of effort and enjoyment of exercise in older people. Participants, however, reported higher enjoyment for walking and dynamic balance compared to strength exercise. Mental fatigue had no effect on the physical function, perception of effort and enjoyment of exercise of older people. Participants presented a higher enjoyment for walking and dynamic balance compared to strength exercise. Given the importance of resistance exercises for health, clinicians should prioritize resources to education programs emphasizing the benefits of resistance exercise in both short- and long-term health. Including social interaction opportunities in physical exercise programs and prescribing activities appropriate to participants’ ability levels could enhance engagement and adherence.

Increased Sensitivity to Effort and Perception of Effort in People with Schizophrenia

Abstract Objective Motivational deficits in schizophrenia are proposed to be attributable in part to abnormal effort-cost computations, calculations weighing the costs vs. the benefits of actions. Several reports have shown that people with schizophrenia display a reduced willingness to exert effort for monetary rewards when compared to controls. The primary goal of the current study was to further characterize reduced willingness to exert effort in schizophrenia by determining whether reduced willingness reflects (1) reduced sensitivity to reward, (2) increased sensitivity to effort, or (3) a combination of both. Design We assessed effort-cost decision-making in 30 controls and 30 people with schizophrenia, using 2 separate experimental tasks. Critically, one paradigm allowed for independent estimation of effects of reward and effort sensitivity on choice behavior. The other task isolated effort sensitivity by measuring effort in the absence of reward. Clinical interviews and self-report questionnaires were administered to people with schizophrenia to determine negative symptom severity. Results Across both tasks, we found evidence for reduced willingness to exert effort in people with schizophrenia compared to controls. Further, in both paradigms reduced willingness to exert effort was driven by increased sensitivity to effort in people with schizophrenia compared to controls. In contrast, measures of reward sensitivity did not significantly differ between groups. Surprisingly, we did not find correlations between task variables and measures of negative symptom severity. Conclusions and Relevance These findings further specify prior work by identifying a specific contributory role for increased effort sensitivity in effort-cost decision-making deficits in schizophrenia.

The effect of weapon handling during load carriage across a range of military-relevant walking speeds

This study investigated the effects of weapon handling on the physiological responses and walking-gait kinematics during load carriage. Seventeen soldiers completed four twelve-minute bouts of treadmill walking at incremental speeds (3.5, 5.5, 6.5 km.h−1 and self-selected) carrying 23.2-kg of additional load, while either handling a weapon or not handling a weapon. Physiological, perceptual and biomechanical outcomes were measured throughout each trial. A weapon-by-speed interaction (p < .05) was observed for hip flexion-extension during loading response and mid-swing. Weapon handling elevated (p < .05) cardiorespiratory responses at 6.5 km.h−1. Main effects (p < .05) of weapon handling were observed for ventilation, oxygen pulse, effort perception, stride length and knee flexion-extension during toe-off. No main effects of weapon handling were observed for any other biomechanical measures. These findings demonstrate that physiological and biomechanical responses to weapon handling are likely walking-speed dependent. Practitioner summary: Weapon handling is an important part of many load-carriage tasks but is rarely investigated. Physiological and biomechanical responses were assessed at incremental speeds during load carriage. Despite similar biomechanics, there was greater physiological demands at faster walking speeds, suggesting an increased contribution from isometric muscle contractions for weapon stabilisation.

Influence of competitive padel matches on physical fitness and perceptual responses in high-level players.

Padel is a sport that requires a combination of physical and technical skills. Fatigue is a major modulator of padel players' performance. The aim of this study was to analyze the changes in neuromuscular performance and perceived effort among high-level padel players. Countermovement jump and handgrip strength of 58 participants (men: N.=38 age = 28.3±7.05 years, height = 178.9±8.41 cm; body mass = 75.25±8.2 kg. women: N.=21, age = 23.07±4.6 years, height = 163.86±10.34 cm; body mass = 59.9±6.13 kg) were assessed pre- and post-match in 43 official matches during the Padel Master 2021 of the Andalusian Padel Federation. Additionally, the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale was used to assess players' subjective perception of effort after each match. Players experienced significant increases in postmatch jump height, with no changes in handgrip strength. Moreover, changes in jump height were greater in male players after the match when compared to their female counterparts, but the match duration was not determinant when comparing CMJ or handgrip between 2-sets and 3-sets matches. Finally, players reported a higher RPE after longer matches, but perceived effort was not different between sexes. These findings suggest that the internal load generated during competitive padel matches is insufficient to cause a declination in performance of the studied variables. It is also concluded that players' warm-up routines could be optimized to enhance neuromuscular performance at the start of matches.

Post-exercise hot or cold water immersion does not alter perception of effort or neuroendocrine responses during subsequent moderate-intensity exercise.

Post-exercise hot (HWI) and cold (CWI) water immersion are popular strategies used by athletes in a range of sporting contexts, such as enhancing recovery or adaptation. However, prolonged heating bouts increase neuroendocrine responses that are associated with perceptions of fatigue. Fourteen endurance-trained runners performed three trials consisting of two 45-min runs at 95% lactate threshold on a treadmill separated by 6h of recovery. Following the first run, participants completed one of HWI (30min, 40°C), CWI (15min, 14°C) or control (CON, 30min rest in ambient conditions) in a randomised order. Perceived effort and recovery were measured using ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS), whilst physiological responses including venous concentrations of a range of neuroendocrine markers, superficial femoral blood flow, heart rate and rectal temperature were measured. Exercise increased neuroendocrine responses of interleukin-6, adrenaline and noradrenaline (all P <0.001). Additionally, perceptions of overall recovery (P <0.001), mental performance capacity (P =0.02), physical performance capability (P =0.01) and emotional balance (P =0.03) were reduced prior to the second run. However, there was no effect of condition on these variables (P>0.05), nor RPE (P =0.68), despite differences in rectal temperature, superficial femoral blood flow following the first run, and participants' expected recovery prior to the intervention (all P <0.001). Therefore, athletes may engage in post-exercise hot or cold-water immersion without negatively impacting moderate-intensity training sessions performed later the same day.

P212 COMPARISON OF COLLEGE STUDENTS’ HEALTH METRICS DURING TRADITIONAL AND VIRTUAL REALITY BASED CYCLING

Background: Most college students do not meet the recommended physical activity guidelines. Novel technology such as virtual reality (VR) may be used to promote physical activity among sedentary students. Purpose: To investigate physiological changes in heart rate (HR), blood-pressure (BP) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) among college students during stationary cycling with and without VR. Methods: Twenty-two college-students (7 M/15F; 18-30years) were recruited on campus. Students separately &amp; randomly completed 2 separate cycling-sessions (with and without VR). The VZFit Ring Racer application with Meta Quest 2 VR Headset synced to a RENPHO smart AI bike was used for the VR session. HR, BP and RPE were assessed at 5-min intervals. Results: Only, RPE at 5-min interval was significant (p=0.032) between the non-VR and VR groups, which may be attributed to the fact that participants were focused more on the VR environment rather than the exercise session, potentially lowering their RPE. Conclusions: In this preliminary data, college students HR, BP &amp; RPE were influenced during the VR session with RPE being lower. This suggests that VR may reduce the perception of effort for a given exercise intensity, and it could be used as a tool to engage students and promote physical activity, in an otherwise sedentary student population.

Does mental fatigue affect performance in racket sports? A systematic review

Mental fatigue impairs performance across several sports domains. However, a systematic review on its effects on racket sports performance has been lacking due to the previous scarcity of studies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive review the effects of mental fatigue on racket players’ performance, with a discussion of the underlying mechanisms. A thorough search was conducted across five databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus (via EBSCOhost), and the Psychological and Behavioral Science Collection (via EBSCOhost). The PICOS framework established the inclusion criteria: (1) healthy racket sports players; (2) induction of mental fatigue in both field and laboratory settings; (3) comparison of mental fatigue interventions with a control group (e.g., watching a movie or reading a magazine); (4) assessment of performance outcomes, including physical performance, skilled performance, and perceptual-cognitive performance; and (5) randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized controlled trials (non-RCTs), and non-randomized non-controlled trials. Mental fatigue manipulation, subjective evaluation, and (neuro)physiological markers were synthesized to support the successful induction of mental fatigue. Performance was categorized into tennis, table tennis, badminton, and padel based on the characteristics of specific racket sports domains. Secondary outcomes, such as the rate perception of effort (RPE) and motivation, were synthesized to explain the mechanisms based on the prominent theory of the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Six studies revealed that mental fatigue impacts stroke performance in table tennis, affecting speed, accuracy, faults, and only second-serve accuracy in tennis. The response time of psychomotor performance increased in table tennis, padel, and badminton. Meanwhile, mental fatigue increased the RPE and remained unchanged in heart rate, blood glucose, and lactate, consistent with the Psychobiological model of endurance performance. Additionally, attention is suggested as a significant underlying psychobiological factor.

Head–neck cooling effects on central and peripheral fatigue, motor accuracy, and blood markers of stress in men with multiple sclerosis and healthy men: A randomized crossover study

BackgroundThe present study aimed to investigate whether head and neck cooling (at 18 °C next to the skin) and fatiguing submaximal exercise at a thermoneutral ambient temperature can induce peripheral and central responses in healthy men and those with multiple sclerosis (MS). MethodsA local head–neck cooling (at 18 °C next to the skin) intervention in men with a relapsing-remitting form of MS (n = 18; age 30.9 ± 8.1 years) and healthy men (n = 22; age 26.7 ± 5.9 years) was assessed. Men in both groups performed 100 intermittent isometric knee extensions with 5 s contractions and 20 s of rest. The primary variables were measured before exercise, after 50 and 100 repetitions, and 1 h after recovery. The central activation ratio, maximal voluntary contraction, electrically induced force, electromyography, contractile properties, blood markers, muscle temperature, and perception of effort were measured. ResultsCompared with noncooled conditions, head and neck cooling increased the central capacity to activate exercising muscles but resulted in greater exercise-induced peripheral fatigue in men with MS (p < 0.05). Local cooling did not affect motor accuracy or the amplitude of electromyography signals; however, these factors were related to the intensity of the motor task (p > 0.05). The changes in central and peripheral fatigability induced by local cooling during submaximal exercise were more pronounced in men with MS than in healthy men (p < 0.05). ConclusionHead and neck cooling enhances central activation of muscles during exercise, leading to improved exercise performance compared with noncooled conditions in men with MS.

Can heat conditions affect the heart rate responses, perception of effort, and technical performance of young male football players during small-sided games? a comparative study

BackgroundSoccer coaches often employ small-sided games (SSGs) to elicit both physiological and technical responses from players. However, numerous contextual factors can influence the outcomes of these games. This comparative study aimed to investigate how environmental temperature (< 21ºC and > 29ºC) impacts heart rate responses, perception of effort, and technical performance in young male football players during SSGs.MethodsThis study compares temperatures below 21ºC (∼ 20.4 ± 0.4ºC) with temperatures above 29ºC (∼ 29.7 ± 0.6ºC). This repeated measures study design involved 60 male football players at a trained/developmental level, selected from under-16 and under-19 teams. It aimed to assess the effects of the 3v3 format, conducted repeatedly under conditions of 21ºC and above 29ºC. Throughout the games, mean heart rate responses (HRmean), measured via heart rate sensors; rate of perceived exertion (RPE), assessed using the CR-10 Borg scale; and successful passes and lost balls, tracked through an ad hoc observational analysis tool, were monitored.ResultsNo significant interactions were observed (time*age group) in meanHR (F = 0.159; p = 0.691; \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}$$\\end{document}=0.003), RPE (F=0.646; p=0.425; \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}$$\\end{document}=0.011), number of passes completed (F=0.204; p=0.654; \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}$$\\end{document}=0.003), and number of lost balls (F = 0.157; p = 0.694; \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\\eta\\:}_{p}^{2}$$\\end{document}=0.003). Overall, significantly higher heart rate responses in mean HR (p<0.001) and RPE (p<0.001) were observed at temperatures above 29ºC, while significantly more passes were completed at temperatures below 21ºC (p<0.001).ConclusionsHeat conditions significantly intensified the psychophysiological responses in players, concurrently leading to a significant impairment in the number of passes. Coaches should contemplate implementing mitigation strategies to avert performance declines during heat conditions when utilizing SSGs.