Effort Mobilization Research Articles

Is the blunted blood pressure reactivity in dysphoric individuals related to attenuated behavioral approach?

Depressive symptoms have been related to autonomic nervous system dysregulation. Recent research found attenuated cardiovascular reactivity to self-relevant tasks. The aim of this study was to examine whether blunted blood pressure reactivity in dysphoric individuals is moderated by impaired effort mobilization and behavioral approach. Seventy-five individuals were instructed to sing a song in front of a camera. Depressive symptoms, blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability as well as subjective and other-rated indicators of behavioral approach were recorded. Depressive symptoms were positively correlated with heart rate and inversely associated with heart rate variability during baseline. Moreover, higher depression scores were accompanied by attenuated systolic blood pressure reactivity during singing, thus supporting previous research. This finding was neither mediated by subjective nor other-rated indicators of behavioral approach. Although confirming recent evidence of blunted blood pressure reactivity and altered autonomic baseline function in dysphoric individuals, the findings call for further research on the role of behavioral approach in depression-related blunted physiological reactivity.

A Closer Look Into the Multi‐Layer Structure of Motivational Intensity Theory

AbstractDrawing on the idea that humans aim to avoid wasting energy that is important for survival, motivational intensity theory postulates that task difficulty and success importance determine energy investment. Additionally, the theory makes predictions on how task characteristics moderate the relationship between task difficulty, success importance, and energy investment. In this article, I will show how the different predictions of motivational intensity theory relate to one another and to what extent they can be derived from the fundamental principle of energy conservation. I will also discuss the application of the theory to effort mobilization and cardiovascular reactivity. Specifically, I will discuss the additional assumptions and predictions that are necessary to link these applications to motivational intensity theory’s basic rationale, the energy conservation principle.

Incentive moderates the impact of implicit anger vs. sadness cues on effort-related cardiac response

This experiment investigated the combined effect of implicit affect and monetary success incentive on effort-related cardiac response in a 2 (Affect Prime: anger vs. sadness)×2 (Incentive: low vs. high) between-person design. Sixty-two participants were exposed to affect primes during an objectively difficult short-term memory task. As predicted, by our theorizing about affect primes’ systematic impact on subjectively experienced task demand and corresponding effort mobilization, sadness primes led to a weak cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP) response when incentive was low (disengagement), but to a very strong PEP response when incentive was high (high effort). PEP responses were moderate in the anger-prime conditions (low effort). HR responses largely corresponded to those of PEP. The results demonstrate for the first time that high incentive can compensate the effort mobilization deficit of individuals who process sadness primes during a difficult task.

Let's prevent peer victimization, not just bullying

This commentary argues that it is time to make bullying less of the central concept in efforts to combat peer victimization. Bullying has been a pivotal concept in the mobilization of effort in recent years to create safe environments for children. It has highlighted a phenomenon that seems to have universal resonance and is recognized internationally (Jimerson, Swearer, & Espelage, 2010). Prevalence for bullying has been measured in many countries, overall assessed as involving about 10% of the school aged population in its chronic form (Molcho et al., 2009). It is associated with serious outcomes (Klomeck et al., 2009) and is higher among abused children (Mohapatra et al., 2010). Public policy efforts are being made in many place to combat its occurrence and its effects (Howlett, 2011; Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, 2011; Salmivalli, Karna, & Poskiparta, 2011).

Affective regulation of cognitive-control adjustments in remitted depressive patients after acute tryptophan depletion

Negative affect in healthy populations regulates the appraisal of demanding situations, which tunes subsequent effort mobilization and adjustments in cognitive control. In the present study, we hypothesized that dysphoria in depressed individuals similarly modulates this adaptation, possibly through a neural mechanism involving serotonergic regulation. We tested the effect of dysphoria induced by acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) in remitted depressed patients on conflict adaptation in a Simon task. ATD temporarily lowers the availability of the serotonin precursor L-Tryptophan and is known to increase depressive symptoms in approximately half of remitted depressed participants. We found that depressive symptoms induced by ATD were associated with increased conflict adaptation. Our finding extends recent observations implying an important role of affect in regulating conflict-driven cognitive control.

Effects of Subliminal Priming on Nonconscious Goal Pursuit and Effort-Related Cardiovascular Response

Building on the work of Aarts and coworkers on nonconscious goal pursuit, the present study investigates whether subliminal processes may motivate effortful behavior and perseverance to learn coursework. We exposed students to a priming task in which subliminal representation of the goal of studying was directly paired (priming-positive group) or not (priming group) to a positive word. There was also a control group without subliminal prime of the goal. Next, students performed a learning task based on their course-work. Participants in the priming-positive group exhibited across time on task a larger decrease of midfrequency band of heart rate variability and a larger decrease of the pulse transit time related to effort mobilization than participants in the control group and the priming group, respectively. These findings provide the first evidence that subliminal priming can induce a greater cardiovascular reactivity suggesting effortful behavior and perseverance when pursuing a simple goal typical of daily life.

Dysphorics can control depressive mood’s informational impact on effort mobilization

Individuals’ level of depression has been shown to systematically determine their amount of effort-related cardiovascular reactivity (see Brinkmann and Gendolla in Motiv Emot, 31:71–82, 2007; J Pers Soc Psychol, 94:146–157, 2008). By means of a mood cue manipulation the present study aimed at providing a conclusive test whether this is due to the informational impact of depressed mood. After habituation, students with low versus high depression scores worked on a memory task under “do-your-best” instructions. Half of them received a cue before the task, suggesting that their current mood may have an impact during task performance. As expected, dysphoric participants showed higher systolic blood pressure reactivity during task performance than nondysphorics when no cue was given. This pattern was reversed in the cue condition, indicating that dysphorics effectively managed to reduce the depressive mood impact on their task demand appraisals and effort mobilization.

Do not prime too much: Prime frequency effects of masked affective stimuli on effort-related cardiovascular response

This experiment investigated the prime frequency effect of masked affective stimuli on effort-related cardiovascular response. Cardiovascular reactivity was recorded during a baseline period and an attention task in which either 1/3, 2/3, or 3/3 of the trials included the presentation of masked emotional facial expressions (sad vs. happy). In the resting trials participants were exposed to masked neutral expressions. As expected, and replicating previous findings ( Gendolla and Silvestrini, in press), participants in the 1/3 priming condition showed stronger systolic blood pressure reactivity – indicating more effort – when they were exposed to masked sad faces than when they were exposed to masked happy faces. This effect disappeared in the 2/3 and 3/3 conditions. Findings are interpreted as demonstrating habituation effects of masked affective stimuli on effort mobilization.

Long-lasting effect of subliminal processes on cardiovascular responses and performance

Students were exposed to a priming task in which subliminal representations of the goal of studying were directly paired (priming-positive group) or not (priming group) to positive words. A control group without subliminal prime of the goal was added. Just after the priming task, students performed an easy or a difficult learning task based on their coursework. Participants in the priming-positive group performed better and had a stronger decrease of pulse transit time and pulse wave amplitude reactivity than participants of the two other groups, but only during the difficult condition. Results suggested that subliminal priming induces effortful behavior extending over twenty five minutes but only when the primes had been associated with visible positive words acting as a reward. These findings provide evidence that subliminal priming can have long-lasting effects on behaviors typical of daily life.

Cognitive deficits in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome compared to those with major depressive disorder and healthy controls

Object Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) patients report usually cognitive complaints. They also have frequently comorbid depression that can be considered a possible explanation for their cognitive dysfunction. We evaluated the cognitive performance of patients with CFS in comparison with a control group of healthy volunteers and a group of patients with MDD. Patients and methods Twenty-five patients with CFS, 25 patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), and 25 healthy control subjects were given standardized tests of attention, working memory, and verbal and visual episodic memory, and were also tested for effects related to lack of effort/simulation, suggestibility, and fatigue. Results Patients with CFS had slower phasic alertness, and also had impaired working, visual and verbal episodic memory compared to controls. They were, however, no more sensitive than the other groups to suggestibility or to fatigue induced during the cognitive session. Cognitive impairments in MDD patients were strongly associated with depression and subjective fatigue; in patients with CFS, there was a weaker correlation between cognition and depression (and no correlation with fatigue). Conclusions This study confirms the presence of an objective impairment in attention and memory in patients with CFS but with good mobilization of effort and without exaggerated suggestibility.

If it’s hard to read… try harder! Processing fluency as signal for effort adjustments

Experiencing difficulties during information processing can either be used as signal for the increased need of cognitive effort ("try harder"), or as avoidance signal for future action selection ("avoid and switch"). These alternative ideas are currently reflected in two seemingly opposing theories of anterior cingulate cortex function, namely the conflict monitoring versus the outcome evaluation account. Botvinick (2007) recently suggested that both positions might converge on the detection of aversive signals. Here, we will show that low perceptual fluency, which is known to evoke negative affective reactions, triggers the mobilization of cognitive effort even in the absence of response conflicts. More precisely, in three experiments effort adjustments in reaction to fluency manipulations as indicated by significant interactions of Fluency( N )×Fluency(N-1) were found. It follows that an aversive signal (here: low fluency) is not only used for effort prediction but also for effort adjustments.

Smiles make it easier and so do frowns: Masked affective stimuli influence mental effort.

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that exposure to masked emotional expressions during the performance of cognitive tasks influences effort mobilization. In support of the predictions, participants who processed masked sad faces during task performance under "do your best" instructions showed stronger sympathetic nervous system discharge to the heart (shorter pre-ejection period, higher systolic blood pressure) than participants who were exposed to masked smiling faces or angry faces. Assessed task appraisals suggest that these effects on effort-related cardiovascular reactivity occurred because the masked emotional stimuli influenced the level of experienced task difficulty. The findings are compatible with the effects of consciously experienced affect on effort-related cardiovascular response.

Trait self-focused attention, task difficulty, and effort-related cardiovascular reactivity

Using motivational intensity theory as a framework, the present experiment examined how individual differences in self-focused attention interact with task difficulty to predict effort, assessed via cardiovascular reactivity. Participants (n=50) worked on a cognitive task fixed at an easy, medium, or hard level of difficulty, and individual differences in private self-consciousness and self-reflection were measured. Regression models indicated that trait self-focus interacted with task difficulty to predict cardiovascular reactivity, particularly systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity. Participants low and high in trait self-focus showed similar SBP reactivity in the easy and medium conditions, but they diverged in the hard condition: High trait focus was associated with higher SBP reactivity, indicating greater effort, whereas low trait self-focus was associated with low SBP reactivity, indicating disengagement. The findings thus support the motivational intensity approach to effort and its interpretation of self-focus's role in effort mobilization.

Effort Mobilization when the Self is Involved: Some Lessons from the Cardiovascular System

In this article it is proposed that the principles of motivational intensity theory ( Brehm & Self, 1989 ) apply to effort mobilization for challenges with consequences for performers’ self-esteem and self-definition (i.e., self-involvement). Accordingly, involvement of the self makes success important and thus justifies the mobilization of high resources. However, up to this level of maximally justified resources, actual effort is mobilized in correspondence to subjective task difficulty as long as success is possible. We report a series of experimental studies that have operationalized effort intensity as cardiovascular reactivity during task performance and used multiple manipulations of self-involvement (social evaluation, self-awareness, ego involvement, personal goals) and task difficulty. The empirical evidence clearly supports the idea that the principles of motivational intensity theory apply to performance conditions that have direct consequences for self-definition and self-esteem and challenges a number of other theoretical accounts.

Young poor sleepers mobilize extra effort in an easy memory task: evidence from cardiovascular measures

Insomniacs often complain of memory deficits, yet objective measures have not consistently corroborated their subjective impressions. A possible explanation for the partial gap between self-report and behavioral measures of memory impairment is that insomniacs recruit extra effort to compensate for the consequences of poor sleep. The present study investigated whether subjective insomnia severity would predict objective effort mobilization, as indexed by cardiovascular measures, in an easy memory task. Seventy-seven university students, mostly women, with a mean age of 22 years were asked to memorize four strings of four random letters in 5 min while cardiovascular measures were obtained. After taking an immediate recall test, participants completed the Insomnia Severity Index, the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory, and a questionnaire on last night's sleep and today's fatigue. Finally, they were given a surprise delayed recall test. Analyses indicated that self-reported insomnia severity was associated with an increase in systolic blood pressure during the learning phase. Regarding memory performance, insomnia severity was unrelated to immediate recall but related to a decrement in delayed recall. These findings reveal for the first time that subjective insomnia severity predicts objective effort mobilization in an easy memory task, suggesting that young poor sleepers recruit extra resources to cope with everyday cognitive challenges.

Are moods motivational states? A study on effort-related cardiovascular response.

Based on the mood-behavior-model (Gendolla, 2000), this study tested the idea that moods only have effects on effort mobilization in settings that directly call for this and in which people can thus use their moods as task-relevant information. Fifty university students were randomly assigned to a 2 (Mood: negative vs. positive) x 2 (Memorizing: intentional vs. incidental) x 2 (Time: mood induction vs. task performance) mixed model design. Effort mobilization was operationalized as systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity. As expected, in the intentional-memorizing condition, SBP reactivity was stronger in a negative mood than in a positive mood. Mood had no impact in the incidental-memorizing condition, which did not call for effort mobilization.

Anhedonia and effort mobilization in dysphoria: Reduced cardiovascular response to reward and punishment

Instigated by evidence for reduced responsiveness to reward in depression, the present two studies addressed the question if such anhedonic behavior would also become evident in reduced mobilization of mental effort in terms of cardiovascular reactivity. Undergraduates completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) and worked on mental tasks, expecting either no consequence, a performance-contingent reward, or a performance-contingent punishment. Study 1 revealed that participants with low CES-D scores showed high systolic blood pressure reactivity in the punishment condition, whereas participants with high CES-D scores showed low systolic reactivity. Study 2 corroborated this finding for reward: Nondysphoric participants expecting a reward showed higher reactivity of systolic blood pressure and pre-ejection period than participants in the neutral condition or than dysphoric participants. Together, the studies demonstrate that reward insensitivity in (subclinical) depression is also found in cardiovascular reactivity. Furthermore, dysphoric individuals do not respond to punishment either, suggesting a general insensitivity to hedonic consequences.

How does achievement motivation influence mental effort mobilization? Physiological evidence of deteriorative effects of negative affects on thelevel of engagement

We tested whether the effect of achievement motivation on effort is modulated by two possible factors of the motivational intensity theory (Wright and Kirby, 2001): perceived difficulty and maximally justified effort. Approach-driven ( N = 16) and avoidance-driven ( N = 16) participants were first instructed to perform a reaction time task to the best of their abilities. Next, the participants were instructed to consistently beat their performance standard established in the first condition. Approach-driven participants showed a stronger decrease of midfrequency band of heart rate variability, which was used as an index of mental effort, than avoidance-driven participants in the second instruction condition. Moreover, avoidance-driven participants showed a higher corrugator supercilii reactivity, which was used as an index of negative affects, than approach-driven participants in the second instruction condition. No difference of perceived difficulty between groups was observed. Results suggested that avoidance-driven participants developed negative affects in the second instruction condition decreasing the maximally justified effort and their level of engagement.

Mood impact on cardiovascular reactivity when task difficulty is unclear

Research in the context of the mood-behavior-model (Gendolla in Rev Gen Psychol 4:348–408, 2000) has shown that moods can have an impact on effort mobilization due to congruency effects on demand appraisals. However, the mood research literature suggests that mood may also influence effort mobilization by its impact on appraisals of the instrumentality of success. In a single factor (mood valence: negative vs. neutral vs. positive) between-persons design, participants performed a memory task under conditions of unclear task difficulty. By successfully performing the task, participants could earn the chance to win a monetary reward. As predicted for tasks with unclear difficulty, effort mobilization—assessed as cardiovascular reactivity—increased from negative to positive mood. This effect was mediated by the subjective probability of winning the monetary reward for successful performance. These results demonstrate for the first time that mood can influence effort mobilization via the estimated instrumentality of success.

Wakefulness in young and elderly subjects driving at night in a car simulator

Young drivers are over-represented in nighttime traffic accidents and several studies have suggested that many accidents are associated with elevated sleepiness levels. It has been suggested that there may be a connection between lowered wake capacity and functional sensory motor skills on the one hand and sleep deprivation at the circadian low in young drivers on the other. Performance during a 45/min evening and night drive among young ( n = 10, age range 18–24 years) and elderly ( n = 10, age range 55–64 years) subjects was studied using a moving base driving simulator. EEG was measured continuously. Every 5 min, subjects were rated on the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS). Saliva cortisol was assessed before and after each drive. The results showed that sleepiness increased across each drive and was higher among young drivers at night. Relative EEG power increased among older drivers for frequencies of 10–16 Hz. The sigma 1 frequency band (12–14 Hz) proved particularly sensitive to sustained driving, and was elevated among subjects in the elderly group. Cortisol levels before and after the evening and night drive showed higher mean levels for elderly subjects. The present study has demonstrated that young drivers were more sleepy while driving at night. The effects could represent a mobilization of effort and a reorganization of brain firing pattern among older subjects, possibly reflecting better ability and effort to resist sleepiness.