Photocatalytic Dye Degradation Efficiency Research Articles

Nanotheranostic fabrication of iron oxide for rapid photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and antifungal potential

This research work includes the fabrication of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs) by green construction approach using Wisteria sinensis leaves extract. Due to its eco-friendly approach, the synthesis of iron oxide NPs (Fe2O3 NPs) using various plant sources, such as plant parts, and microbial cells have gained a lot of attention in recent years. Cost-effectiveness and ease of availability make Wisteria sinensis leaves extract a potential candidate for the construction of iron oxide NPs. The various key features like biocompatibility, non-toxicity capping, and stabilizing agents present in biological sources are advantageous for usage in a variety of applications. The phytoconstituents present in the leaf extract of Wisteria sinensis serve as reducing and stabilizing agents. The biologically fabricated (Fe2O3 NPs) were analyzed using FT-IR, XRD, UV–vis spectroscopy, and SEM. In the present work, the antioxidant and photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency of Fe2O3 NPs has been studied. The dye degradation efficiency of methylene blue dye was found to be 87% at 180 min upon exposure to sunlight. The capacity of Fe2O3 NPs to scavenge 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl hydrate free radicals (DPPH)was examined using a UV–Vis spectrophotometer. The study compared the radical scavenging activity (RSA) of Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs) with that of the standard antioxidant ascorbic acid. The results demonstrated that Fe2O3 NPs have a greater ability to scavenge radicals than ascorbic acid. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of Fe2O3 NPs was observed to range from 0.12 to 0.17. Furthermore, Fe2O3 NPs displayed the highest antifungal activity, with an inhibition zone of 26.8 mm against F. oxysporum. These findings suggest that the biologically synthesized Fe2O3 NPs possess potent antimicrobial and dye degradation properties.

Cr doped ZnO nanoparticles as photocatalyst for the degradation of methylene blue dye

Herein, pristine and Cr doped ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using hydrothermal method and were used as a photocatalyst for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye under natural sunlight. Rietveld refinement of the X-ray Diffraction (XRD) pattern confirmed the hexagonal wurtzite structure whereas the presence of elements along with their orbitals was verified from the XPS survey spectra. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM) images show a distorted rod-like morphology. Among the prepared nanostructure, Zn0.98Cr0.02O NPs possess the lowest bandgap energy due to the presence of optically active sub-levels within the bandgap region. The photoluminescent (PL) spectra were taken with 325 nm as the excitation wavelength with emission peaks in the visible region. The enhanced photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency demonstrated by Zn0.98Cr0.02O under visible light was attributed to the presence of defects in lattice, leads to the reduction electron-hole recombination rate. These features make the prepared nanoparticles as an excellent candidate for applications relating to a number of environmental issues.

Plasmonic nanoparticles doped metal oxide hybrid materials for efficient photocatalytic dye degradation and strong anti-biofilm activity

Plasmonic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) doped ZnO (Ag-ZnO) nanoplates were synthesized by simple wet chemical method in presence of hexylamine with an intent to improve the visible light mediated photocatalytic activity of ZnO. Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis confirmed the integration of AgNPs with ZnO nanoplates. High-resolution transmission electron microscopic (HR-TEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis confirmed the formation of ZnO nanoplates and AgNPs doping. The concentration of Ag in ZnO nanoplates was increased by increasing hexylamine concentration. Ag-ZnO hybrid nanoplates exhibited efficient degradation of organic dyes (methyl orange (MO), methylene blue (MB), Eosin Y (EY) and rhodamine B (RB)) in presence of sun light compared to the pristine ZnO. Further, AgNPs doping with ZnO strongly enhanced anti-biofilm activity and showed strong prevention of colonization. The increase of AgNPs concentration in ZnO nanoplates exhibited enhancement of both photocatalytic and anti-biofilm activity that might be attributed to the improved light absorption in the visible region.

A novel macro-meso-micro intimate heterogeneous structure constructed 3DOM TiO2/rGO/TiN composite for efficiently solar photocatalysis degradation of organic dye pollutants

The new three-dimensionally ordered macroporous titanium dioxide/reduced graphene oxide/titanium nitride (3DOM TiO2/rGO/TiN) ternary nanocomposites are designed based on the pore structure of 3DOM for efficient photocatalytic dye degradation. A series of structural, optical, and photoelectrochemical characterizations demonstrate that the remarkably improved photocatalytic performance is attributed to the combined effects of macro-meso-micro architecture, abundant reactive sites, improved light response range, and efficient photogenerated charges-holes pair separation and transport. By optimizing the loading amounts of rGO and TiN, 3DOM TiO2/10%rGO/5%TiN nanocomposite exhibits the highest photocatalytic degradation activity, which is 7.4 times higher than 3DOM TiO2. Additionally, the 3DOM TiO2/rGO/TiN ternary photocatalyst shows excellent acid-base resistance and reusability. The mechanism by which 3DOM structure, 2D rGO, and TiN synergy enhance the TiO2 photocatalytic performance was fully revealed comprehensively. This work provides an effective strategy for designing TiO2-base macro-meso-micro intimate heterogeneous structure for photocatalysis degradation of dyes.

Photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency and reusability of aluminium substituted nickel ferrite nanostructures for wastewater remediation

In this study, nickel ferrite and aluminum-doped nickel ferrite were synthesized using the hydrothermal method. The cubic ferrite structure with space group Fd3m was confirmed by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The functional groups of the nanoparticles were analyzed using FTIR and FT-Raman spectroscopy. The morphology and elemental composition of the products were examined using FESEM and EDX mapping analyses. The presence of O, Fe, and Ni, as well as the presence of Al in the doped sample, was confirmed by EDX in all the prepared nanoferrites, and TEM analaysis confirmed the shape and purity of the prepared samples. BET surface areas were found to be 46.39, 70.43, and 111.68 m2/g for samples NF, NFA3, and NFA6, respectively. The saturation magnetization was calculated to be 58.08, 38.41, and 28.15 emu/g, for the samples NF, NFA3, and NFA6 respectively. Finally, the prepared nanoparticles were used to determine their photocatalytic activity against methyl blue (MB) and methyl orange (MO) under visible-light irradiation. The photocatalytic activity of the NiAl0.6Fe1.4O4 NPs was found to be MB (97.48 %) and MO (93.04 %). The results showed that the aluminum-doped nickel ferrite (NiAl0.6Fe1.4O4) exhibited good photocatalytic activity.

A wheel-shaped gallium-sulfide molecular ring with enhanced photocatalytic activity via indium alloying

An counterpart-shaped gallium-sulfide molecular ring with its indium alloyed one toward efficient photocatalytic dye degradation and comparable photocatalytic hydrogen production.

Tantalum doped titanium dioxide nanoparticles for efficient photocatalytic degradation of dyes

In this work, the hydrothermal method was utilized for the facile synthesis of tantalum (Ta) doped titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles. A study of structural, morphological, and optical properties was conducted using various characterizations such as powder X-ray diffraction method (XRD), Raman analysis, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) measurements, Ultraviolet-Visible diffusion reflection (UV–vis-DRS) spectroscopy. The structure of as-synthesized nanoparticles was analyzed by the XRD and their phase purity was confirmed with Raman analysis. The functional groups present in the samples were verified with Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra which showed bands that are characteristic of the titanium dioxide (Ti-O-Ti) bonds. Also, it shows the presence of the Ta-O-Ta bond which confirms the presence of tantalum in TiO2. The optical band gap of as-synthesized TiO2 was slightly reduced when doped with tantalum. The morphology and nature of the samples were confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The photocatalytic activity of the pure TiO2 and Ta-doped TiO2 was investigated by using Rhodamine B (Rh B) and Methylene Blue (MB) dyes and were confirmed with the first-order kinetics. The synthesized nanoparticles were used for the degradation of the Rh B and MB dyes under ultraviolet light irradiation for 120 minutes. Ta-doped TiO2 nanomaterials, remarkably Ta with 3 wt.% showed enhanced photocatalytic dye degradation when compared with as-synthesized TiO2.

Structural strategy to enhance the quantum and photocatalytic efficiency of ZnO quantum dots by incorporation of interface states

ZnO quantum dots (QDs) are potential candidates for high-efficiency emitters and photocatalysts. High efficiency demands high recombination of carriers, while high photocatalytic efficiency demands charge carrier separation. Here, we report an unexplored approach for achieving these opposite properties simultaneously by incorporating interface states in the ZnO QDs through a new strategy. We have used TEOS with Zinc acetate as synthesis precursors to prepare SiO2 encapsulated 5–6 nm ZnO QDs (ZnO@SiO2 QDs). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), FTIR and negative photoconductivity test confirmed the formation of interface states due to Zn − O − Si bonds between the SiO2 matrix and ZnO quantum dots. The ZnO@SiO2 QDs possess remarkable photocatalytic dye degradation properties, e.g., stability, efficiency and recyclability that outperform even the uncoated and commercially available ZnO beside high quantum yield varying between 46.1 % to 56.4 %, simultaneously. The photocatalytic mechanism has been further verified using the radical scavenger test. Thus, the work outlines designers' material design perspectives and discusses the detailed photophysical mechanisms for guiding the development of next-generation high-efficiency emitters and photocatalysts.

Unveiling quaternary GeSbSeEr chalcogenides as photocatalyst: Degradation of cationic and anionic pollutant in visible light

This article presents the photo-catalytic dye-degradation from pure and doped multi-component Ge17Sb8Se75-xErx(x = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1) chalcogenides system has been established in visible light (orange ∼590 nm) for the first time. Band-gap shifting, suitable band position and higher absorption of visible range radiation have been accounted for Er doping to realize the improvement in electron-hole pair production. The improvement in the photo-catalytic activity dye degradation efficiency of 89% in 90 min for methylene blue and 76% for methyl orange has been achieved for certain compositions of chalcogenides glass which were synthesized by traditional melt quench approach. Further, SEM-EDX Photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopy measurements of these samples are supplemented to deliberate the composition, band edge transitions and chemical signatures of Ge17Sb8Se75-xErx. Overall, the presence of Er ions as well as the band to band transition (∼664 nm) in the chalcogenides system is found to play a decisive role in the photo catalytically process involved for competitive dye degradation to replace conventional dyes working in the UV range.

Efficient Photocatalytic Dye Degradation and Bacterial Inactivation by Graphitic Carbon Nitride and Starch-Doped Magnesium Hydroxide Nanostructures.

The removal of hazardous pollutants from water is becoming an increasingly interesting topic of research considering their impact on the environment and the ecosystem. This work was carried out to synthesize graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and starch-doped magnesium hydroxide (g-C3N4/St-Mg(OH)2) nanostructures via a facile co-precipitation process. The focus of this study is to treat polluted water and bactericidal behavior with a ternary system (doping-dependent Mg(OH)2). Different concentrations (2 and 4 wt %) of g-C3N4 were doped in a fixed amount of starch and Mg(OH)2 to degrade methylene blue dye from an aqueous solution with bactericidal potential against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) pathogens. The textural structures, morphological evolutions, and optical characteristics of the as-prepared samples were analyzed using advanced characterization techniques. X-ray diffraction confirmed the hexagonal phase of Mg(OH)2 with improved crystallinity upon doping. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed Mg(OH)2 stretching vibrations and other functional groups. UV-visible spectroscopy exhibited a red shift (bathochromic effect) in absorption spectra representing the decrease in energy band gap (E g). Photoluminescence patterns were recorded to study recombination of charge carriers (e- and h+). A significant enhancement in photodegradation efficiency (97.62%) and efficient bactericidal actions against E. coli (14.10 mm inhibition zone) and S. aureus (7.45 mm inhibition zone) were observed for higher doped specimen 4% g-C3N4/St-Mg(OH)2.

Photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency of Co doped ZnO nanostructure

The influence of transition metal doping on the dye degradation efficiency of ZnO nanostructures are investigated by pristine and 3% Co doped ZnO nanostructures (Co: ZnO) grown by simple hydrothermal method. Phase purity and crystal structure of synthesized samples are revealed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and the spectra confirms the phase pure material with hexagonal wurtzite structure. The crystalline size is found to decrease with Co doping. Optical characterization was done by UV-Visible absorption spectroscopy. Optical study confirms that the band gap energy of the samples during doping with Co decreases as compared to pure ZnO. The photocatalytic activity of the synthesized samples under sunlight over the Crystal Violet (CV)dye was investigated for pure and doped samples. The result showed that the pure ZnO samples act as an efficient material for photocatalysis as compared to 3% Co doped sample.

Natural Cotton Cellulose-Supported TiO2 Quantum Dots for the Highly Efficient Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes.

The artificial photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants has emerged as a promising approach to purifying the water environment. The core issue of this ongoing research is to construct efficient but easily recyclable photocatalysts without quadratic harm. Here, we report an eco-friendly photocatalyst with in situ generated TiO2 quantum dots (TQDs) on natural cotton cellulose (CC) by a simple one-step hydrothermal method. The porous fine structure and abundant hydroxyl groups control the shape growth and improve the stability of nanoparticles, making natural CC suitable for TQDs. The TQDs/CC photocatalyst was synthesized without the chemical modification of the TQDs. FE-SEM and TEM results showed that 5–6 nm TQDs are uniformly decorated on the CC surface. The long-term stability in photocatalytic activity and structure of more than ten cycles directly demonstrates the stability of CC on TQDs. With larger CC sizes, TQDs are easier to recycle. The TQDs/CC photocatalysts show impressive potential in the photocatalytic degradation of anionic methyl orange (MO) dyes and cationic rhodamine B (RhB) dyes.

Enhanced electron transfer due to rGO makes Ag–CaTiO3@rGO a promising plasmonic photocatalyst

Herein, the synthesis of a new ternary nanocomposite, Ag–CaTiO 3 @rGO, exhibiting high photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency is reported. The photocatalytic activity of Ag–CaTiO 3 @rGO was studied under natural sunlight with a model dye pollutant sulforhodamine B. This photocatalyst's high degradation efficiency is attributed to the synergistic effect of plasmon-induced visible light-harvesting due to Ag and enhanced adsorption and electron–transport properties due to rGO. It is found that the Ag-induced surface plasmon characteristics of the nanocomposites are sensitive to rGO concentration. Absorption spectra of the nanocomposites indicated that Ag and rGO enhance and extend the absorbance in the visible region, which is beneficial for creating photo-carriers during the photocatalytic reaction under sunlight. In the X-ray photoelectron spectra, ∼0.7–0.8 eV positive binding energy shift is observed in Ca 2p, Ti 2p, and O 1s peaks of typical Ag–CaTiO 3 @rGO compared to Ag–CaTiO 3 and CaTiO 3 , indicating that electrons are transferred to the electron acceptor, rGO. The reusability of this photocatalyst Ag–CaTiO 3 @rGO was analyzed by conducting repeated dye degradation tests. The adsorption characteristics of the designed catalyst followed the Langmuir isotherm model. A model for the plausible mechanism of enhanced sunlight-driven photocatalysis by Ag–CaTiO 3 @rGO with 7.5 wt% GO is also proposed.

Photocatalytic Activity of Boron Doped CuO and Its Composite with Polyaniline

ABSTRACT This study used a simple one-step technique to prepare boron-doped copper (II) oxide (CuO-B) nanoparticles, which were synthesized through the solution combustion method. The as-prepared CuO-B nanoparticles were compounded with the conducting polymer, polyaniline (Pani), in varying composition. This study revealed the effect of compounding with Pani on the photocatalytic activity of CuO-B. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated through the degradation of the methylene blue dye under visible light irradiation. The as-prepared CuO-B nanoparticles and their composites with Pani were characterized through Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy. When compared with CuO-B, Pani composites resulted in improved photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency due to the suppression of the recombination rate of the photoexcited charge carriers on CuO-B. The Pani composite with 80 wt.% CuO-B exhibited an 65.3% degradation of the model dye in 240 min, which was about 7% higher than that of CuO-B. A 1.2-fold increase in the reaction rate was obtained for the specified composite. The optical band gap of CuO-B increased to 1.40 eV when it was compounded with 20 wt.% Pani. In real wastewater environment, the dye degradation efficiency of CuO-B decreased from 57.9% to 51.9%. In addition, the dye degradation efficiency of four times of recycled CuO-B reduced to 33.7% in 240 min.

Fabrication of high-performance multifunctional Fe-doped La2ZnTiO6 double perovskite/activated carbon nanocomposite for efficient photocatalytic degradation of dyes, nitrate and carbon dioxide pollutants

Nowadays, among the different environmental pollutants; nitrate (NO3−), carbon dioxide (CO2), and organic dyes have created serious concern worldwide. Therefore, the synthesis of a high-performance photocatalyst for the simultaneous and effective removal of these pollutants is taken into consideration. In this research, Fe-doped La2ZnTiO6/activated carbon multifunctional photocatalyst was used to degradation of dyes (Rhodamine-b (RhB) cation dye and acid red 14 (AR14) anion dye), NO3−, and CO2 pollutants under visible light irradiation. The structural properties of synthesized photocatalyst were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and Energy-dispersive X-ray/mapping (EDX-Map) analysis. In addition, the photocatalytic activity of Fe-doped La2ZnTiO6/activated carbon nanocomposite was investigated by UV–visible analysis, Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and photoluminescence technique. The UV–visible spectrums were indicated the degradation percentage of 88.24% for RhB cation dye and degradation efficiency of 86.67% for AR14 anion dye in experiment conditions of pH;7, temperature (T); 65 °C, stirring speed (S); 200 rpm, time retention (t); 5h, photocatalyst dosage [catalyst]; 1 g/L, dye concentration [dye]o; 10 mg/L and distance between the surface of the solution and visible light source; 10 cm under visible light irradiation. In addition, the maximum removal value of NO3− pollutant from aqueous solution was determined about 86.67% in experiment conditions of pH; 3, temperature; 25 °C, agitation rate; 200 rpm, time reaction; 3h, photocatalyst dosage; 1 g/l, NO3−concentration; 100 mg/L and distance between the surface of the solution and light source; 10 cm under visible light irradiation, respectively. Finally, degradation and conversion maximum of CO2 pollutant was obtained at about 80% in test conditions of pH; 3, temperature; 25 °C, mixing rate; 200 rpm, time reaction; 3h, photocatalyst dosage; 1 g/L, CO2 concentration; 100 mg/L and distance between the surface of the solution and light source; 10 cm under visible light irradiation.

Photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency and reusability of Cu-substituted Zn-Mg spinel nanoferrites for wastewater remediation

A series of unmodified and copper-modified zinc‑magnesium nanoferrites [Zn0.7Mg0.3-xCuxFe2O4 (x = 0.0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06)] were prepared to degrade methylene blue (MB), a widely used textile dye and a threat to humans and the environment. The X-ray diffraction data reveals a spinel cube-like crystal structure with no additional phases. The sharpness and frequency of XRD peaks highlighted the nanocrystalline structure of fabricated photocatalysts. The calculated crystallite size (t) shows inconsistent behavior within 13–25 nm on doping copper ions within the crystal matrix of Zn-Mg nanoferrites. The morphological analysis showed the existence of spherical and aggregated nanoparticles for the synthesized Zn0.7Mg0.3Fe2O4 (x = 0.0), and Zn0.7Mg0.28Cu0.02Fe2O4 (x = 0.02) specimens. In the fabrication of Zn0.7Mg0.3Fe2O4 (ZMF1), Zn0.7Mg0.28Cu0.02Fe2O4 (ZMF2), Zn0.7Mg0.26Cu0.04Fe2O4 (ZMF3) and Zn0.7Mg0.24Cu0.06Fe2O4 (ZMF4) nanoferrites, the predicted band gaps were 2.30 eV, 2.18 eV, 2.07 eV, and 1.94 eV, respectively. The FTIR spectrum shows stretching vibrations in Fe-O complexes at the A-sites and B-sites, whereas the Raman spectrum exhibits five Raman active vibrational modes at 230–800 cm−1. The nanophotocatalysts showed excellent magnetization values around 4.44–12.92 emu/g with an applied field of 6000 Oe. In the photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue, Zn0.7Mg0.24Cu0.06Fe2O4 (x = 0.06) nanophotocatalyst showed a maximum rate constant of 0.0252 min−1 and 90% photocatalytic degradation efficiency. The nanoferrites showed excellent photocatalytic activity for five cycles and were easily separated using an external magnet.

Superhydrophobic ZnO-Au nanocomposite over polydimethylsiloxane tubes for efficient photocatalytic dye degradation

Superhydrophobic ZnO-Au nanocomposite over polydimethylsiloxane tubes for efficient photocatalytic dye degradation

Nanostructured DyCrO3-rGO for efficient photocatalytic dye degradation and hydrogen generation

Dysprosium chromite (DyCrO3) nanoparticles and dysprosium chromite-reduced graphene oxide (DyCrO3-rGO) nanocomposite were synthesized by using a hydrothermal technique. The rGO incorporated DyCrO3-rGO photocatalyst demonstrated up to 87% efficiency to degrade rhodamine B dye which is higher than those of DyCrO3 and commercial Degussa P25 titania nanoparticles. DyCrO3-rGO also generated approximately 3 times greater amounts of hydrogen via water splitting compared to that produced by the P25 titania nanoparticles. The outcome of this investigation might be helpful for synthesizing rGO-based nanocomposite heterostructures for superior solar energy-driven applications.

Microwave-assisted synthesis of NiTe2 photocatalyst as a facile and scalable approach for energy-efficient photocatalysis and detoxification of harmful organic dyes

Microwave-assisted synthesis of NiTe2, a metal dichalcogenide, is reported here as a facile and rapid preparation method for energy-efficient and scalable photocatalysis application and detoxification of water pollution. Synthetic dyes as organic pollutants in water, such as Methylene blue, Congo red, and Methyl orange cause serious health and environmental issues, which are degraded effectively by heterogeneous photocatalysis using NiTe2 as a catalyst. The photons from a UV-source generates excitons within the surface of NiTe2 that can react with O2, H2O, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) initiator to convert them into reactive superoxide anions (−O2), hydroperoxyl (HOO), and hydroxide radicals (OH) which holds strong oxidizing power to degrade organic dye molecules. The UV irradiation can also perform photolysis in the presence of a hydrogen peroxide initiator within the catalyst system. The 3D-support structure of nickel foam substrate and needlelike rod structure of NiTe2 catalyst provides a high surface area. This 3D solid structure can solve the major issue of catalyst separation after treatment which is a major problem in powder catalysts. Our study demonstrates excellent photocatalytic dye-degradation efficiency within a very short treatment time, can replace other Fenton-based catalysts that produce a large amount of iron sludge, and are difficult to remove.

Effect of Photodegradation on Ternary FeNiS2 Thin Film with Complexing Agents EDTA and Leishman Stain

The aim of this study is to analyze the photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency of FeNiS2 with EDTA and Leishman stain thin films prepared using a sol-gel technique. The results of surface morphology and elemental composition, optical characterization of these films obtained using various characterization techniques such as SEM, EDX, UV-VIS spectroscopy. The photocatalytic studies show that the addition of EDTA and Leishman extraordinarily enhances the photocatalytic efficiency of FeNiS2. The FeNiS2 with EDTA, FeNiS2 with Leishman stain thin films causes 92%, 90% and 89% decomposition of methylene blue, malachite green and crystal violet dye molecules, respectively.