Efficiency Of Container Terminals Research Articles

Evaluating the technical efficiency of Egypt’s main container terminals

ABSTRACT Technical efficiency in container terminals refers to the ability of a port/terminal to operate at maximum capacity with a minimum number of resources. This includes optimising equipment and workforce utilisation, as well as streamlining operations and logistics to reduce delays and increase throughput. This research follows a deductive approach using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models (CCR) and sensitivity analysis (SA) to define the most effective variable in the efficiency score of the main Egyptian container terminals. According to the sensitivity analysis, the most significant variable influencing the efficiency scores is the draft. Using the CCR model, it was found that the majority of the Egyptian container terminals under review were inefficient during the study period, with the exception of the East Port Said terminal. The current research is limited to evaluating the technical efficiency of six Egyptian container terminals (Alexandria, El-Dekheila, Damietta, East Port Said port, Port Said West, and El-Sokhna terminals) using two different DEA models from 2018 to 2022. The present research offers an in-depth approach for evaluating the technical efficiency of container terminals. The study’s findings could be applied to developing guidelines for enhancing the efficiency and productivity of Egypt’s container terminals.

The impact of container call size - evidence from simulation modelling

We present an analysis of the impact of large container ship call sizes on the operational efficiency of container terminals as well as on hinterland modes of transport. We use standard container terminal simulation software, that can represent a realistic terminal operation. We include dynamic crane productivity, arrival time uncertainty, and deepsea vessel prioritisation in our model.Our experiments investigate the impact of introducing larger call sizes of container ships, increasing the uncertainty in arrival times of deepsea ships, and the impact of the phenomenon of split calls that are employed by the largest container ships in certain regions in the world. We differentiate between the impact on terminal operations, land-based hinterland traffic, and hinterland traffic over water, through barges and feeder vessels.Our results show that introducing large ships with large container call sizes comes with benefits and drawbacks. Benefits can be found in planning advantages for both the deepsea ships and barges and feeders handled in the terminal. Drawbacks occur as a result of operational peaks in subsystems such as the quay cranes, the stack and the land side gates. Higher uncertainty deteriorates the performance of the terminal, but the impact on the hinterland modes of transport is greater than on the large deepsea vessels. The impact of the split call is that it brings all the disadvantages of large vessels, but none of the benefits.Our analysis shows the operational impact of large call sizes on terminal operations and hinterland transport operations, based on container terminal simulations with a higher degree of realism than previous work. In addition, we offer, for the first time, insights in the impact of split calls of container ships at container terminals.

Selection of multi-criteria energy efficiency and emission abatement portfolios in container terminals

Environmental protection, sustainability, and energy efficiency are important issues in seaport management. As the interface between sea and hinterland transport, container terminals play an important role in global trade, logistics, and supply chains. To increase sustainability and improve the environmental footprint of the terminal, a wide range of emission abatement measures are available. Often, however, there is not only a lack of a precise analysis of the impact, costs and consequences of the measures on the terminal, but also a lack of a methodology for the selection of a set of measures, i.e. for portfolio selection in environmental decisions.This paper presents an approach for multi-criteria portfolio selection to environmental decision problems. It is illustrated via an extensive case study for environmental sustainability measures in container terminals. Particularly, energy and emission abatement measures are assessed and used to construct a portfolio that improves the overall energy efficiency of the terminal. A modified PROMETHEE V approach is used to construct appropriate portfolios of measures based on the decision maker’s (DM’s) preferences and further interdependencies. PROMETHEE II is again used to decide on a portfolio.

Robust multi-equipment scheduling for U-shaped container terminals concerning double-cycling mode and uncertain operation time with cascade effects

The integrated scheduling of quay cranes, internal vehicles, and yard cranes in container terminals aims to improve port operations and often requires scheduling robustness under uncertainty with cascade effects. In container terminal operations, uncertainty in equipment operating time poses challenges to effective scheduling, as even small fluctuations can create cascade effects throughout the operations, rendering the original schedule ineffective. This research aims to develop a new method that enables a balance between optimization and robustness in container terminal scheduling. Additionally, the double-cycling operation mode and U-shaped port layout, known for their improved efficiency in container terminals, are gaining increasing attention and hence are incorporated into this study. It creates a three-stage hybrid flow shop scheduling problem with bi-directional flows, waiting time, and uncertain operation time. To address the complex problem, a mixed integer programming model is proposed to characterize the integrated scheduling problem, and an index based on complex network structure entropy is designed to evaluate the anti-cascade effect as well as the robustness of the schedule. The index and makespan serve as the bi-objectives, transforming the original problem into a bi-objective optimization one. The non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-Ⅱ with appropriate coding and decoding rules is utilized to solve the model and obtain a set of Pareto frontier solutions. The feasibility of the new method is verified through a real case analysis. Specifically, comparative analysis with basic stochastic programming, basic robust optimization, triangular fuzzy programming, and maximum gap method are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the new method. The paper also provides insightful practical implications for port managers, and the genericity of the method could also contribute to its practical values spreading to a wider scope of beneficiaries, such as manufacturing warehousing and distribution management.

Unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) scheduling method by a bi-level mission planning and path control

To enhance the operational efficiency of container terminals, we propose a bi-level scheduling method that employs unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) to transport containers exclusively between different berths on the waterside of terminals. In the upper level, Considering time windows, berth coordination, energy replenishment, etc., we formulate the mission decision model to obtain a cost-effective USVs shipping solution by minimizing unplanned delay and total execution cost. In the lower level, considering path distance, path smoothness, and motion constraints, we develop the USV path control model to achieve the USV path planning and reduce path tracking errors. Finally, we integrate the advantages of the chaotic Electron Search and multi-population Genetic Algorithm (ES-mGA) to solve the bi-level USVs scheduling model. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach and algorithm in guiding the USVs to efficiently accomplish container transshipment and acquire stable USV sailing states.

An evaluation model of sustainable efficiency for container terminals

AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to evaluate the sustainable efficiency of container terminals (CTs). By the definition of United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), business sustainable development includes three domains: Economics, Environment, and Society. Accordingly, based on the definition and the practical features of CT operations, this paper assesses sustainable efficiency for CTs from three perspectives: container throughput, CO2 emissions, and occupational safety. In this paper, a modality movement and a fuzzy grey relational analysis (GRA) approach are first proposed to estimate CO2 emissions and occupational safety index for CT operators, respectively. A hybrid slacks‐based measure (SBM)‐DEA model is then developed to assess the sustainable efficiency of CT operators. Finally, the CT operators in the Port of Kaohsiung are empirically investigated to validate the research model. Based on the results, theoretical and practical implications for the management of CT operators and port authorities are discussed.

Technical efficiency evaluation and ranking of container terminal operators through DEA

In today’s competitive business environment the evaluation and ranking of container terminals plays a crucial role. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models are suitable to measure the efficiencies of alternatives specified with multiple inputs with multiple outputs, where as Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) models are suitable to measure the efficiencies of alternatives specified by multiple inputs with single output. In this four inputs and four outputs are considered for the evaluation of technical efficiency of container terminals and DEA is implemented to evaluate the performance of these container terminals based on technical efficiency. Also Regression analysis is performed to identify the factors which affect the technical efficiency mostly.

Inbound container storage pricing considering price-dependent container storage time and congestion in container terminals

ABSTRACT Congestion at ports and railheads is attracting more and more attention from both the government and industry. In this paper, we intend to improve container terminal operation efficiency from the perspective of inbound container storage pricing. We study a two-stage pricing game model for a profit-maximising shipping company and a container terminal operator. Two types of objective functions are investigated for the container terminal operator: profit maximisation and cost minimisation. Price-dependent container storage time is considered. After theoretical analysis, the pricing equilibria is derived. Through numerical studies, we find that the cost-minimising objective is recommended for the terminal operator to relieve the stress of yard congestion. Container terminal operators have an incentive to raise storage prices to cope with congestion in terminal yards.

The Integrated Rescheduling Problem of Berth Allocation and Quay Crane Assignment with Uncertainty

The baseline plan of terminals will be impacted to a certain extent after being affected by uncertain events, such as vessel delay and unscheduled vessel arrival, resulting in disorderly terminal operations, wasted resources, and reduced loading and unloading efficiency, which further aggravates terminal congestion. To effectively cope with the disturbance of terminal operations by the above uncertain events and improve the operational efficiency of container terminals, this paper investigates the integrated rescheduling problem of berth allocation and quay crane assignment with vessel delay and unscheduled vessel arrival. Two steps are designed to deal with uncertainty shocks. The first step is to determine the rescheduling moment by using a rolling time-domain approach. The second step is to establish a rescheduling model and design an improved genetic algorithm(IGA) to obtain a rescheduling solution using various rescheduling strategies at the rescheduling moment. Moreover, through scenario experiments, comparisons with commercial solvers and other algorithms, it can be seen that the solution speed of IGA is better than that of commercial solvers and the average gap does not exceed 6%, which verifies the effectiveness and superiority of this algorithm.

A comparative study of the productivity and operational efficiency of container terminals of major Indian ports and Srilankan port using DEA (Malmquist index)

The purpose of this study is to compare the operational and technical efficiency of four Indian and one Srilankan Port, comprising of 13 Indian container terminals and 5 Srilankan container terminals. The relative efficiencies of these 18 terminals were analysed over a period of the last six years, starting from FY2013-2014 through FY2018-2019, by comparing the micro level factors contributing to the efficiency of ports. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) using Malmquist index was the methodology chosen for analysis. The study analysed the operational efficiency of the container terminals using a few factors like number of berths, depth of berths, quay cranes, goods handled in each terminal, yard size of container terminal, number of ships handled per container terminal, workforce deployed at each container terminal, and throughput of the terminals. The results exposed the fact that terminal efficiency was largely dependent on the technological changes.

Evaluation Analysis of the Operational Efficiency and Total Factor Productivity of Container Terminals in China

As crucial international trade and global logistics players, container terminals worldwide handle more than 80% of the global merchandise trade. After analyzing and summarizing the previous studies, we use container terminal companies as the research object to fill the gap left by previous studies. Based on the above research status, this study analyzes the operational efficiency and total factor productivity of 32 container terminal companies in China using the super -efficiency DEA–SBM model and the Malmquist index method. The results show that (1) the operational efficiency level of 32 container terminals in China from 2017 to 2020 has a huge gap, and 15 container terminal companies have operational efficiency below 0.6, which indicates that most container terminals have excess inputs and a waste of resources. (2) The container terminals in the Bohai Rim, Pearl River Delta and Yangtze River Delta regions have higher operational efficiency. This shows that the development of container terminals cannot be separated from the economic hinterland of the cities where the ports are located. (3) The Malmquist index analysis shows a 2.8% decrease in total factor productivity, a 3.2% increase in the composite technical efficiency index and a 5.8% decrease in the technological progress index, which indicates that most container terminal companies have imperfect management practices and decision making. Based on the study’s results, this research provides relevant and feasible recommendations for policymakers who formulate policies for the development of the shipping industry to promote high quality and sustainable development of the shipping industry and the economy.

Solving integrated problem of stowage planning with crane split by an improved genetic algorithm based on novel encoding mode

Stowage plan, which is planning for a reasonable movement of containers, plays an important role in enhancing the efficiency and competitiveness of container terminals. The time required for handling containerships also depends on the operations of quay cranes, which is one of the most expensive equipment in container terminals. Hence, this paper integrates stowage planning and crane split problem to minimize the total berthing time at each visiting port over the voyage. A new mathematical model is developed, which covers a wide range of operational and structural constraints for both stowage plan and crane operation. An improved genetic algorithm based on a novel encoding mode of assignment strategies, including container grouping and operation strategies, is designed to solve the problem, which also introduces penalty operations to solve the infeasible solutions. Finally, some computational experiments are carried out. Firstly, three small-sized experiments are implemented to verify the feasibility of the proposed model and algorithm. Secondly, large-sized experiments with 5 ports, 3385 containers, and 2 quay cranes show that the proposed approach can solve the integration problem with different productivity of quay cranes effectively and decrease the berthing time by 6.0%. Eventually, a comparison experiment with 5 ports, 5752 containers, and 2 quay cranes is conducted, and the results indicate that the proposed algorithm results in 62.3% and 87.7% decrease in the total number of rehandling times and computational time. Meanwhile, the results also show that the proposed algorithm can be convergent. So the proposed algorithm is effective and efficient in solving the integration problem and enhancing the efficiency of container terminals.

Economic Efficiency of the Korean Container Terminals: A Stochastic Cost Frontier Approach

Purpose - Recent issues such as vessel enlargement, strengthening of environmental regulations, and port smartization are expected to increase costs and intensify competition in the port industry. In the new normal era, when external growth has reached its limit, the efficient operation of ports is becoming indispensable for achieving sustainable growth. This study aims to identify the determinants of inefficiency by examining the cost structure and efficiency of container terminals in Korea and furthermore propose the political implications to derive the maximization of efficiency.
 Design/methodology - This study estimates the cost function of container terminal operators and identifies the efficiency of container terminals using stochastic cost frontier (SCF) in the first stage. In the second step, the SCF results are compared with the data envelopment analysis (DEA). Last, this paper proposes efficiency determinants on container terminal operation to establish appropriate strategies. Out of the 29 container terminal operators in South Korea, 13 operators participated in the survey. The translog cost function was estimated utilizing a total of 116 observations collected over the 2007-2017 period.
 Findings - Empirical analysis shows that economies of scale exist in Korea’s container ports, which provides a rationale for the government’s policy to establish the global terminal operator by integrating small terminal operators to enhance competitiveness. In addition, as a result of the determinants analysis, container throughput, weight of direct employment costs, and labour cost share have positive effects on improving cost efficiency, while inefficiency increases as the length of quay increases. More specifically, cost efficiency improves as the proportion of direct employment costs to outsourcing service costs increases.
 Originality/value - This study contributes to analyzing the inefficiency factors of container terminals through efficiency analysis with respect to a cost function. In addition, this study proposes the practical and political implications, such as establishing a long-term manpower pool, the application of the hybrid liner terminal system, and the construction of a statistical data system, to improve the cost inefficiency of terminal operators.

A Study on the Analysis of Operational Efficiency of Major Container Terminals in Korea

국제무역의 성장에 따라 한국 해운물류도 빠르게 발전해 왔다. 국내 항만 컨테이너 물동량은 2000년부터 2019년까지 꾸준히 증가하다가 2020년에 코로나-19의 영향으로 감소한 추세를 보였다. 해양수산부는 국내 주요 한만의 컨테이너 경쟁력을 강화하기 위해 제4차 전국 항만기본계획을 통해 컨테이너 터미널의 자동화, 컨테이너선 대형화를 대비한 선석 확대 등 정책을 제시하고 있다. 정책 추진의 합리성과 효율성을 위해 각 항만의 컨테이너 터미널 운영 현황을 파악하고, 문제점을 진단해볼 시점이다. 기존에 국내 컨테이너 터미널의 운영 효율성에 관한 연구가 존재하나, 10년 이상 지나 현재 상황을 반영하지 못한다는 한계점이 있다. 본 연구는 Data Envelopment Analysis(DEA) 기법을 사용하여 국내 주요 항만(부산항, 인천항, 광양항, 울산항, 평택당진항)에 존재하는 20개 컨테이너 터미널의 운영 효율성을 비교⋅분석하였다. 투입변수와 산출변수로 2020년 자료를 사용함으로써 가장 최근의 상황을 반영할 수 있도록 하였다. 분석결과, CCR 모형에서는 부산항 PNIT, PNC, HJNC의 운영 효율성이 최적이었으며, 이와 함께 인천항 E1CT와 울산항 JUCT 총 5개 터미널이 BCC 모형에서 효율성이 최적으로 나타났다. 이어서, 벤치마킹 항만에 대한 분석을 실시하고, 항만별 특성을 고려하여 부산항과 인천항에 대해서는 마케팅/홍보 강화와 선사 유치 등을 통한 컨테이너 물동량을 확대 방안을 제시하였다. 광양항, 울산항, 평택당진항의 경우 터미널 통합 운영, 선석재배치 등을 통해 항만시설 투입 합리화를 추진해야 함을 언급하였다. 본 연구의 결과는 향후 국내 주요 항만이 컨테이너 터미널의 경쟁력을 강화하기 위한 각종 정책 수립시 유용한 참고자료로 활용될 수 있을 것이다.

An assessment of operating efficiency for container terminals in a port – An empirical study in Kaohsiung Port using Data Envelopment Analysis

Existing studies in favor of comparing operating efficiency for different container ports often do not result in compelling results for port organizational policies, partly because the external environments those compared ports face are divergent. Instead, this study aims at examining the operating efficiency of container terminals (CTs) in a port by deploying a Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model. For validating the proposed model, the CT operators in the Kaohsiung port in Taiwan were empirically investigated. The findings may provide practical information for CT operators to improve their operating efficiency and achieve high-quality development. Besides, the research model might contribute an analytical reference for the practical applications of the DEA model in related port management. Especially, this research provides a methodological framework for terminal operators to assess CTs' operating efficiency inside a port.

Are output disaggregation and energy variables key when measuring container terminal efficiency?

ABSTRACT This paper addresses the question whether energy consumption variables and the disaggregation of output matter in the context of efficiency analysis of container terminals. While it is obvious that the energy consumption of refrigerated cargo is higher than the energy consumption of non-refrigerated cargo, this work investigates whether those differences show in an overall efficiency analysis of terminals. This would point to a potentially important input for efficiency measures, to be considered in future productivity and efficiency analysis of terminals. Starting with a discussion on theoretical concepts and variable selection for measuring the energy dimension of terminal efficiency, this is the first paper that applies data envelopment analysis (DEA) comparing results with and without energy consumption, as well as differentiating productive outputs (dry and reefer container handling). The results reveal how the output disaggregation leads to substantially different efficiency scores and are a first step to show the relevance of output disaggregation and the inclusion of the energy variables as inputs in container terminal efficiency studies.

Planning decision alterations and container terminal efficiency

PurposeThis paper examines how the altering nature of planning decisions affects operational efficiency in seaport container terminals. The uncertainty and the role of the planner were investigated considering the dynamic integrated planning function of the quay to yard interface.Design/methodology/approachA system dynamics model has been built to illustrate the integrated dynamic environment. Data collection was conducted at a leading container terminal at a hub port. The model was simulated for different scenarios to derive findings.FindingsThe planner has been identified as the agent who makes alterations between the initial operational plan and the actual plan. The initial plan remains uncertain even when there is no impact from crane breakdowns, requiring a significant number of alterations to be made. The planner who had worked on the yard plan had altered (approximately 45%) the initial plan than the alterations done by the planner who had worked on the vessel plan. As a result, the feedback loop that is created by the remaining moves at each hourly operation influences the upcoming operation as much as crane breakdowns influence.Originality/value The uncertainty and the role of the planner were investigated considering the dynamic integrated planning function of the quay to yard interface. The findings of this study are significant since terminal efficiency is examined considering the quayside and landside as an integrated system.

Collaborative optimization of truck appointment system and yard cranes allocation based on ship time window

With the rapid growth of the global container trade volume and the trend of large-scale container ships. The collection and distribution port efficiency and capacity of container terminals in various countries are facing huge challenges. Due to the randomness of most of the trucks entering the port, container terminals often face the problem of traffic congestion caused by the centralized arrival of trucks in the port and the load operation of the yard operation equipment. Therefore, terminal operators urgently need to manage and optimize all aspects of terminal collection and distribution operations. This paper proposes a truck appointment system that simultaneously considers the time window of the ships and the allocation plan of the yard crans, so as to reasonably allocate the arrival time of each truck and the amount of appointment quota. By means of shortening the time window of each ship’s and rationally allocating the yard cranes operations in the blocks, human and material resources can be fully utilized, so as to alleviate the traffic pressure in the container terminal, shorten the waiting time of ships and trucks, and reduce the cost of terminal operators.

Determination of the Efficiency of Port Performance and Productivity Based on Data Envelopment Analysis in the West Africa Sub-region

Background: Ports are one of the assets of every country and one way to achieve efficiency is by maximizing productivity amid limited resources. Despite the increase in the number of studies on the efficiency of container terminals, their focus has been channeled on advanced markets. Researchers conduct limited studies on container terminals in developing countries such as those of the West African region, which are located in a critical geographic place in the international maritime route between these areas and the World. Information on their potential for development relative to other terminals worldwide is therefore not readily available hence, this study seeks to provide answers to critical productivity indicators of ports in the West Africa sub-region. Methods : We evaluate the technical efficiency of the 5 major container terminals in the West African region. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach is used to measure technical efficiency and slack variable analysis which identifies potential areas of improvement for inefficient terminals. Moreover, DEA can handle multiple inputs and outputs, which makes it applicable to the port analysis. Findings: The results indicate that the Tema port is the most efficient port among the sample, with an average efficiency of 100% in the nine years and the Port of Cotonou is the least efficient with an average efficiency of 44% and exhibits substantial waste in production throughout the nine-year analysis. Novelty: This is the first time that the current data from 2010- 2018 has been used to determine port efficiency and the efficiency scores are necessary indicators for terminal managers to adopt and sustain all the necessary alignments to structures and strategies. Keywords: Data envelopment analysis; productivity improvement; efficiency; port management; West Africa

An efficiency analysis of container terminals in Southern Vietnam using DEA dynamic efficiency evaluation

Southern Vietnam is a key economic region for the country, producing 45% of Vietnam’s GDP, despite only accounting for 9% of the country’s total landmass and 21% of its population. Specifically, the Southern Region dominates seaport-based container transportation, contributing 55% of Vietnam’s total vessel calls and 74% of its total container cargo volume, with the North and Central regions trailing far behind. However, despite the sector’s importance, the efficiency of container terminals in Southern Vietnam has not been evaluated by the literature in recent years. This study fills this research gap by using data envelopment analysis (DEA) to evaluate the efficiency of major container terminals in Southern Vietnam. The results of the DEA Malmquist analysis show that most container terminals demonstrated productivity growth between 2017 and 2019, and that this mainly derived from advancements in catch-up operational efficiency and in technological innovation. Moreover, the DEA slack-based measure and DEA undesirable output analyses demonstrate that three container terminals (Cai Mep International Terminal, Tan Cang Cat Lai, and Tan Cang–Cai Mep International Terminal) achieved the maximum efficiency level when both applying and not applying the undesirable output variable. However, other container terminals displayed severe operational inefficiency, with these terminals’ efficiency values decreasing by between 9% and 40% when considering undesirable outputs. The ineffective terminals can therefore be categorized as consuming excessive inputs and lacking in the production of desirable outputs or creating large amounts of undesirable outputs. Therefore, using these results, port authorities and policymakers should be better placed to develop appropriate strategies for managing container terminals in Southern Vietnam.