Effects Of Maternal Nutrition Research Articles

147 Nutritional advances in fetal and neonatal development: Mineral nutrition

Abstract Mineral nutrition during pregnancy has long been known to impact fetal growth and development. This is evidenced by a multitude of mineral deficiency-related causes for embryonic loss, abortion, stillbirth, or neonatal death, including poor or inappropriate fetal development that can be either reversible or irreversible postnatally. Both macro and trace mineral needs of the dam are known to increase with the fetal growth of advancing gestation due to greater metabolic stress and demand, as well as tissue development and deposition in the fetus. Fetal deposition of many trace minerals is especially important for neonatal use while consuming milk with low mineral concentrations and facing a multitude of immune challenges. In the last 2 decades, many laboratories have focused on “developmental programming,” or the effects of maternal nutrition on fetal and neonatal development and ultimately long-term health and productivity of livestock. Despite this, the role of macro and trace minerals in short-and long-term consequences of developmental programming is still unclear for many minerals and species. Taken together, research in ruminants and swine demonstrate that mineral intake and source during pregnancy can have a large effect on fetal growth and development that lasts into the neonatal and pre-weaning periods. Some studies suggest that supra-nutritional mineral intake may have a positive benefit during gestation or neonatal periods. Moreover, some data suggest that mineral requirements may be greater than currently thought to accommodate the rapid fetal growth and preparation for lactation that occurs during late gestation. Continued research is necessary to determine mineral requirements of livestock during pregnancy, especially when considering their long-reaching subsequent effects on offspring. Additionally, increased understanding of perinatal transfer of trace minerals can aid in our management of pregnant dams and their offspring.

The effects of maternal nutrition during the first 50 d of gestation on the location and abundance of hexose and cationic amino acid transporters in beef heifer uteroplacental tissues.

We hypothesized that maternal nutrition during the first 50 d of gestation would influence the abundance of hexose transporters, SLC2A1, SLC2A3, and SLC2A5, and cationic amino acid transporters, SLC7A1 and SLC7A2, in heifer uteroplacental tissues. Angus-cross heifers (n = 43) were estrus synchronized, bred via artificial insemination, and assigned at breeding to 1 of 2 dietary intake groups (CON = 100% of requirements to achieve 0.45 kg/d of BW gain or RES = 60% of CON intake) and ovariohysterectomized on day 16, 34, or 50 of gestation (n = 6 to 9/d) in a completely randomized design with a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments. Uterine cross-sections were collected from the horn ipsilateral to the corpus luteum, fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, sectioned at 5 µm, and stained via immunofluorescence for transporters. For each image, areas of fetal membrane (FM; chorioallantois), luminal epithelium (ENDO), superficial glands (SG), deep glands (DG), and myometrium (MYO) were analyzed separately for relative intensity of fluorescence as an indicator of transporter abundance. Analysis of FM was only conducted for days 34 and 50. No transporters in target areas were influenced by a day × treatment interaction (P ≥ 0.06). In ENDO, all transporters were differentially abundant from days 16 to 50 of gestation (P ≤ 0.04), and SLC7A2 was greater (P = 0.05) for RES vs. CON. In SG, SLC7A1 and SLC7A2 were greater (P ≤ 0.04) at day 34 vs. day 16. In DG, SLC2A3 and SLC7A1 were greater (P ≤ 0.05) for CON vs. RES heifers; furthermore, SLC7A1 was greater (P < 0.01) at day 50 vs. days 16 and 34 of gestation. In MYO, SLC7A1 was greater (P < 0.01) for CON vs. RES and was greater (P = 0.02) at days 34 and 50 vs. day 16. There were no differences in FM (P ≥ 0.06). Analysis of all uterine tissues at day 16 determined that SLC2A1, SLC2A3, and SLC7A2 were all differentially abundant across uterine tissue type (P < 0.01), and SLC7A1 was greater (P = 0.02) for CON vs. RES. Analysis of all uteroplacental tissues at days 34 and 50 demonstrated that all transporters differed (P < 0.01) across uteroplacental tissues, and SLC7A1 was greater (P < 0.01) for CON vs. RES. These data are interpreted to imply that transporters are differentially affected by day of gestation, and that hexose and cationic amino acid transporters are differentially abundant across utero-placental tissue types, and that SLC7A1 is responsive to maternal nutritional treatment.

Effects of Maternal Supplementation with an Injectable Trace Mineral Containing Copper, Manganese, Zinc, and Selenium on Subsequent Steer Finishing Phase Performance and Carcass Characteristics.

Simple SummaryThe persistent effects of maternal nutrition on subsequent offspring health and performance have drawn great attention in both the livestock industry and human health field in recent years. Trace minerals play very important roles in nutrition and regulate many critical biological processes. Therefore, trace mineral status of the dam has the potential to influence early growth and development of the fetus, which leads to long-lasting effects on animal health and growth performance. This study demonstrated that maternal supplementation of trace minerals increased the percentage of carcasses graded as USDA Choice or greater, but maternal trace mineral injections had limited effects on finishing phase growth performance and other carcass characteristics of the offspring. Stakeholders of the cow/calf and feedlot operations should consider these results as they make decisions on maternal trace mineral administrations.The objective of this study was to investigate effects of maternal supplementation with an injectable trace mineral (Cu, Mn, Zn, and Se) on subsequent steer performance during the finishing phase. Seventy-six Angus cross steers (initial body weight 249 ± 41.5 kg) from dams administered either an injectable trace mineral (TM; Multimin 90) or sterilized physiological saline (CON) during prepartum stage were used. Individual feed intake during the finishing phase were recorded with GrowSafe feed bunks. Blood and liver biopsy samples were collected to evaluate trace mineral status. Steers were slaughtered at 413 ± 26 days of age and carcass data were obtained at a commercial abattoir. Growth performance or mineral status of the steers during the finishing phase was not affected (p ≥ 0.14) by maternal treatments. Carcass characteristics were not different (p ≥ 0.18), except steers from TM dams had greater (p = 0.05) percentage of carcasses graded as Choice or greater. In conclusion, maternal supplementation of an injectable trace mineral increased the percentage of carcasses graded as Choice or greater, other than that, maternal supplementation had limited influence on finishing phase growth performance, trace mineral status, or carcass characteristics of the subsequent steer progeny.

Effects of protein supplementation on Nellore cows’ reproductive performance, growth, myogenesis, lipogenesis and intestine development of the progeny

Context It is hypothesised that protein supplementation in pregnant Nellore cows during the dry season would improve reproductive performance in the next breeding season, as well as growth, myogenesis and intramuscular lipogenesis of the progeny until weaning. Aims To evaluate the effect of maternal nutrition on cow reproductive performance, as well as on the growth, myogenesis and lipogenesis of the progeny until weaning. Methods A total of 92 pregnant cows were fed on pasture, and half of the cows were also fed a mineral–protein supplement (36% crude protein) from 124 ± 21 days of pregnancy to calving. Therefore, two treatments were tested: non-supplemented or supplemented cows. Progeny were weighed after birth, 130 days after birth and at weaning. Six newborn calves from each treatment were slaughtered to collect muscle and jejunum samples to analyse histology and gene expression. In addition, Longissimus thoracis muscle biopsies were collected at 11 days after birth and weaning for gene expression analyses. Key results Supplemented cows had greater bodyweight (P = 0.03) and body condition score (P = 0.05) during gestation, and the pregnancy rate in the subsequent breeding season had a tendency (P = 0.10) to be greater. The progeny from supplemented cows had greater bodyweight at birth (P = 0.05). However, no differences (P &amp;gt; 0.05) were found in bodyweight at weaning or in the average daily gain during this period. Non-supplemented calves had greater SLC27A4 (P = 0.04) expression and a tendency for greater expression of SLC5A1 (P = 0.08) in the jejunum. Muscle gene expression data showed that progeny from supplemented cows had greater expression of myogenic (WNT10B), adipogenic (PPARG, ZFP423, CD36) and fibrogenic (TGFβ1) markers at birth and at weaning (P ≤ 0.10). Conclusions In conclusion, protein supplementation of pregnant Nellore cows leads to positive effects for subsequent reproductive performance and for muscle development of their progeny. In addition, the progeny from feed-restricted cows increases prenatal intestinal development for better nutrients absorption under a potentially impaired environmental condition. Implications The use of protein supplementation in pregnant Nellore cows has a positive impact on the production system, increasing productivity in a cow/calf operation.

The Impact of Milk and Its Components on Epigenetic Programming of Immune Function in Early Life and Beyond: Implications for Allergy and Asthma.

Specific and adequate nutrition during pregnancy and early life is an important factor in avoiding non-communicable diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and chronic allergic diseases. Although epidemiologic and experimental studies have shown that nutrition is important at all stages of life, it is especially important in prenatal and the first few years of life. During the last decade, there has been a growing interest in the potential role of epigenetic mechanisms in the increasing health problems associated with allergic disease. Epigenetics involves several mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNAs which can modify the expression of genes. In this study, we focus on the effects of maternal nutrition during pregnancy, the effects of the bioactive components in human and bovine milk, and the environmental factors that can affect early life (i.e., farming, milk processing, and bacterial exposure), and which contribute to the epigenetic mechanisms underlying the persistent programming of immune functions and allergic diseases. This knowledge will help to improve approaches to nutrition in early life and help prevent allergies in the future.

Maternal diet and offspring telomere length: a systematic review.

Many studies assert a negative influence of inappropriate maternal diet and nutritional status during pregnancy on offspring, not only in utero but throughout life, because of the role in the programing of noncommunicable diseases. Telomere length is a biomarker of aging, and shorter telomeres are associated with chronic disease later in life. Maternal nutrition and nutritional status may be an important determinant of offspring telomere length. A systematic review was conducted to determine the effect of maternal nutrition and nutritional status in pregnancy on offspring telomere length. This systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. Database searches of PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Medline, and Web of Science were performed. Included studies assessed the association between maternal nutrition (dietary intake and nutritional status) during pregnancy and offspring telomere length measured in cord blood, serum, plasma, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Three authors screened and determined the quality of the articles; disagreements were resolved by a fourth author. All authors compared the compiled data. Seven studies were extracted and evaluated. Studies comprised a double-blind placebo-controlled trial (n = 1), prospective cohort studies (n = 5), and a cross-sectional study (n = 1). Higher circulating maternal folate and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 concentrations, along with higher maternal dietary caffeine intakes, were associated with longer offspring telomere length, whereas higher dietary intake of carbohydrate, folate, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin C, or sodium was not. The limited but suggestive evidence highlights the need for further research to be conducted in this area, particularly longitudinal studies involving larger cohorts of pregnant women. PROSPERO registration no. CRD42019136506.

The Infant Gut Microbiota and Risk of Asthma: The Effect of Maternal Nutrition during Pregnancy and Lactation.

Research has amply demonstrated that early life dysbiosis of the gut microbiota influences the propensity to develop asthma. The influence of maternal nutrition on infant gut microbiota is therefore of growing interest. However, a handful of prospective studies have examined the role of maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy in influencing the infant gut microbiota but did not assess whether this resulted in an increased risk of asthma later in life. The mechanisms involved in the process are also, thus far, poorly documented. There have also been few studies examining the effect of maternal dietary nutrient intake during lactation on the milk microbiota, the effect on the infant gut microbiota and, furthermore, the consequences for asthma development remain largely unknown. Therefore, the specific aim of this mini review is summarizing the current knowledge regarding the effect of maternal nutrition during pregnancy and lactation on the infant gut microbiota composition, and whether it has implications for asthma development.

PSIV-B-25 Late-Breaking: Maternal supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids and methionine during late- gestation alters amino acid transporters and global DNA methylation in the lamb small intestine

Abstract The intestine plays a crucial role in nutrient digestion and absorption, and its function is critical for animal growth and health. However, the effect of maternal nutrition on offspring’s intestine is not well documented. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of maternal supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids, methionine or both during late-gestation on offspring’s intestine amino acids transporters and global DNA methylation. Twenty ewes were used in a randomized block design and treatments were arranged in a 2×2 factorial design. Treatments were: 1) control diet (CTR) without polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) or methionine (MET) supplementation; or supplemented with 2) Ca salts of PUFA (1% DMI; Strata G113®, Virtus Nutrition); rumen-protected MET (0.1% DMI; Smartamine®, Adisseo); and 4) PUFA and MET (PUFA+MET). Treatments were fed from day 100 to 145 of gestation. On day 145, ewes were euthanized and fetuses’ intestines were sampled. Protein quantification of amino acid transporters was measured using Simple Western System and global DNA methylation was determined using a commercial kit. No interactions between PUFA×MET were observed for the variables analyzed. PUFA increased (P ≤ 0.03) global DNA methylation and protein expression of SLC7A5, SLC38A2, and SLC38A10 compared with CTR. Furthermore, PUFA tended to increase (P = 0.07) SLC38A1 protein expression compared with CTR, whereas no difference (P &amp;gt; 0.05) was observed for SLC6A9. Compared with CTR, MET increased (P ≤ 0.05) global DNA methylation and SLC38A10 protein expression, and tented to increase (P ≤ 0.10) SLC6A19 and SLC38A2. MET did not affect SLC7A5 and SLC38A1 compared with CTR. Maternal supply of PUFA and MET led to greater protein expression of amino acid transporters and global DNA methylation on offspring’ intestine; however, the effects of these nutrients were not additive. Further research is necessary to better understand the role of DNA methylation on intestine’s amino acid transporters.

345 The effects of maternal nutrient restriction followed by re-alimentation on offspring growth and metabolism in sheep

Abstract The duration and timing of inadequate maternal nutrition can have detrimental effects on metabolism and organogenesis in the offspring. Re-alimentation, a common management practice that involves feeding full nutrient requirements following a period of nutrient restriction, may reduce the negative impacts of maternal nutrient restriction. To determine the effects of maternal nutrient restriction and re-alimentation on offspring growth,48 primiparous ewes, confirmed pregnant with singletons, were fed a control diet consisting of100% NRC requirements (CON) starting on day25 of gestation. On day50 of gestation, ewes (n = 7) were euthanized and fetal liver, muscle, and blood samples were collected. The remaining animals were fed either CON or60% NRC requirements (RES). On day90 of gestation, a portion of ewes were euthanized (n = 7 per treatment) and fetal samples and weights were collected. Remaining ewes were maintained on the current diet (CON-CON, n = 6; RES-RES, n = 7) or switched to the alternative diet (CON-RES, RES-CON; n = 7/treatment). On day130 of gestation, all remaining ewes were euthanized. All fetal BW, liver, longissimus muscle, semitendinosus, and triceps brachii weights were determined for each day of gestation. Fetal BW’s were not different between treatment groups (P = 0.29; P = 0.83). Fetal liver weights decreased12.89% in RES-RES compared with CON-CON at day130 (P = 0.049), but were not different at day90 (P = 0.69). There was a tendency for decreased semitendinosus weight in RES group compared with CON at day90 (P = 0.055). Liver lipid droplet accumulation was analyzed for day90 and130 using histochemistry and an effect of maternal nutrition was not observed (P = 0.562). In summary, maternal nutrient restriction reduces offspring muscle and liver growth. To gain insight into the effects of maternal nutrient restriction and re-alimentation on liver development and metabolism, analysis of liver morphology, gene expression, and global metabolomics are needed. Supported by USDA-AFRI grant2016-67016-24884

PSIV-8 Effects of restricted maternal nutrition and re-alimentation on fetal muscle development from mid to late gestation in sheep

Abstract Inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation negatively impacts offspring muscle development, which may be attenuated by re-alimentation. We hypothesized that restricted maternal nutrition would alter fetal muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) and the percent of Pax7(+) progenitor cells. To test this, 48 primiparous ewes, pregnant with singletons, were fed 100% of NRC requirements (CON) between days 25 and 50 of gestation. At day 50 of gestation, seven ewes were euthanized for fetal sample collection. The remaining ewes were fed either CON or 60% NRC requirements (RES). At day 90 of gestation, seven ewes per diet were euthanized for fetal sample collection. The remaining ewes were maintained on their current diet (CON-CON, RES-RES) or switched to the alternate diet (CON-RES, RES-CON). At day 130 of gestation, all ewes (n = 6 or 7 ewes/diet) were euthanized, and fetal samples were collected. On days 90 and 130, fetal longissimus (LM) and triceps brachii (TB) were collected and immunostained for enumeration of Pax7(+) cells and muscle fiber CSA. The percent of Pax7(+) cells was determined by dividing the number of Pax7(+) cells by the total number of cells. At day 90 of gestation, the percent of Pax7(+) cells was less (P &amp;lt; 0.01) in the TB of RES compared with CON. At day 130, fiber CSA was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.04) in RES-CON compared with CON-CON, CON-RES, and RES-CON in the TB, and was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.02) in RES-CON compared with RES-RES and CON-RES in the LM. An effect of maternal nutrition was not observed for the percent of Pax7(+) cells in the LM, or for CSA at day 90 in either muscle. Thus, restricted maternal nutrition during early to mid-gestation alters the percent of Pax7(+) cells at mid-gestation in a muscle specific manner. Re-alimentation during late gestation increased fiber CSA, demonstrating that re-alimentation alters fetal muscle development.

374 Effects of maternal nutrition on secretion of leptin in the neonatal heifer and interaction of maternal and postnatal nutrition on age at puberty and postpubertal secretion of luteinizing hormone

Abstract Nutrition during gestation and early postnatally can program developmental changes in the offspring that persist until adult life. Here we tested the hypotheses that maternal nutritional during the second and third trimesters of gestation 1) affects neonatal secretion of leptin in heifer offspring, and 2) interacts with dietary energy intake during the juvenile period to affect age at puberty and postpubertal pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) in heifers. Bos indicus-influenced beef cows (n = 108) in 3 replicates bearing heifer fetuses were assigned randomly to receive low (L), moderate (M), or high energy (H) diets to achieve body condition scores (BCS) of 3–3.5 (thin; n = 36), 5.5–6 (moderate; n = 36), or 7.5–8 (obese; n = 36) by the second trimester of gestation until calving. Heifer offspring were weaned at 3–3.5 months of age and assigned randomly to either a high- (H; 1 kg/day) or low-gain (L; 0.5 kg/day) diet for 5 months. Blood samples from a subgroup of 30 heifers (Exp. 1) from cows in each maternal treatment (n = 10/treatment) were collected once every 2–3 days for 2 weeks after birth. In Exp. 2, 18 heifers representing 3 of the maternal × postnatal groups (HH, MH and LL) were ovariectomized and received estradiol replacement (OVX+E) after puberty. Pulsatile secretion of LH was evaluated for 5.5 hours. Maternal nutrition did not affect postnatal circulating leptin. Based on two replicates (n = 61), postnatal diets had the greatest effect on age at puberty (L &amp;gt; H; P &amp;lt; 0.001), with a lesser maternal diet effect (P &amp;lt; 0.10), although LL &amp;gt; HH by 99 days. None of the characteristics of pulsatile LH secretion differed among treatments in OVX + E heifers. Dietary effects on age at puberty were not associated with hormonal characteristics evaluated in these initial studies.

Dietary methionine deficiency reduces laying performances of female common ducks and impacts traits of interest of their mule ducklings

The effects of maternal nutrition on offspring phenotypes have been mainly documented over the past years in mammals, and are now studied in poultry as well. In the present study, we investigated the effects of a reduced level of dietary Methionine (Met) on laying performances of common laying ducks and their impacts on the phenotype of their mule ducklings. A total of 60 female laying ducks were divided into 2 dietary treatments at 10 wk of age. The restricted group received Met-restricted diets (R group) containing 0.25% of Met whereas the control group received control diets (C group) containing 0.40% of Met that meets Met requirements. The restriction was applied during the growing and laying periods, from 10 to 51 wk of age and a particular focus was put on female breeder traits that might be affected by the Met restriction. Plasma parameters of hepatic and lipid metabolisms were recorded in ducklings. Total weight (P<0.001), albumen weight (P<0.001) and albumen percentage of dry matter (P<0.01) were decreased for eggs laid by female breeders from the R group. Both male and female ducklings from the R group of female breeders showed a reduced BW at hatching (P<0.001) and a tendency to an increased proportional liver weight (P=0.07). Finally, the maternal low dietary Met level modified plasma parameters in newborn ducklings regardless of sex: alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alanine transaminase (ALT) activities were reduced (P=0.07 and P=0.002, respectively), levels of glucose (P=0.03) and triglycerides (P=0.01) were higher whereas level of free fatty acids decreased (P=0.01). It was concluded that feeding female laying ducks with a restricted dietary Met content during the growing and laying periods has a negative effect on egg weight and composition. The ducklings that were restricted in nutrients during their early development, have a reduced BW, and altered lipid and hepatic metabolisms.

Time-Dependent Effects of Maternal Body Mass Index in Pregnancy on Mental Disorders in Adult Offspring: A Record Linkage Study in Aberdeen, Scotland

Background: Maternal obesity in pregnancy predicts offspring psychopathology risk in childhood but evidence is scarce and conflicting on whether maternal obesity or underweight predict adulthood mental disorders. Methods: We examined longitudinally whether maternal body mass index (BMI) in pregnancy was associated with mental disorders in her offspring born 1950-1999, and whether the associations differed by child birth year, among 68571 mother-child dyads of Aberdeen Maternity and Neonatal Databank, Scotland. Maternal BMI was measured at a mean 15.7 gestational weeks and classified into underweight, normal weight, overweight, moderate obesity and severe obesity. Mental disorders were identified from nationwide health registers carrying diagnoses of all hospitalizations and deaths in Scotland in 1996-2017. Outcomes: Independently of maternal mental disorders and other covariates, maternal BMI was associated with offspring mental disorders in a time-dependent manner. In offspring born 1950-1974, maternal underweight predicted the hazard of mental disorders [Hazard Ratio(HR)=1.74, 95% Confidence Interval(CI)=1.01-3.00). In offspring born 1975-1999, maternal severe obesity predicted increased hazards of any mental disorder (HR=1.60, 95% CI=1.08-2.38), substance use (HR=1.91, 95% CI=1.03-3.57) and schizophrenia spectrum (HR=2.80, 95% CI=1.40-5.63) disorders. Interpretation: Our findings support the developmental origins of health and disease framework by showing time-specific associations between maternal BMI in pregnancy and mental disorders in adult offspring. Considering the marked rise in obesity prevalence, the findings carry important public health implications by underlining the possible effects of maternal nutrition on offspring mental disorders across the lifespan. Funding Statement: Academy of Finland, European Commission EraNet Neuron, University of Helsinki. We acknowledge the support of the British Heart Foundation (RE/18/5/34216) and Tommy’s. Declaration of Interests: None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to declare. Ethics Approval Statement: Ethics and Governance approvals were obtained from the NHS Scotland's Public Benefit and Privacy Panel for Health and Social Care (Reference 516-0594) and the AMND steering committee.

Effects of maternal protein supplementation and inclusion of rumen-protected fat in the finishing diet on nutrient digestibility and expression of intestinal genes in Nellore steers.

The study aimed to evaluate nutrient digestibility and intestine gene expression in the progeny from cows supplemented during gestation and fed diets with or without rumen-protected fat (RPF) in the feedlot. Forty-eight Nellore steers, averaging 340kg, were housed in individual pens and allotted in a completely randomized design using a 2×2 factorial arrangement (dams nutrition×RPF). Cows' supplementation started after 124±21days of gestation. The feedlot lasted 135days and diets had the inclusion of zero or 6% of RPF. Digestibility was evaluated by total feces collection. Steers were slaughtered using the concussion technique and samples of pancreas and small intestine were collected immediately after the slaughter to analyze α-amylase activity, and the expression of SLC5A1, CD36, and CCK and villi morphometry. Feeding RPF increased nutrients digestibility (p<0.01). There was no effect of maternal nutrition on digestibility and α-amylase activity in steers (p>0.05). Duodenal expression of SLC5A1, CD36, and CCK increased in the progeny from restricted cows. In conclusion, protein restriction during mid to late gestation of dams has long-term effects on small-intestine length and on expression of membrane transporters genes in the duodenum of the progeny. However, maternal nutrition does not affect digestibility in the feedlot.

The effects of maternal nutrition around the time of conception on the health of the offspring

The incidence of prematurity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease have been increasing in both the developed and developing world. Increasing numbers of human studies suggest that these serious health outcomes may have developmental origins originating from nutritional deficits in the periconceptional period, with maternal nutrition around the time of conception now shown to have important effects on the length of gestation, trajectory of fetal growth and on postnatal growth and health. Biomedical research using the pregnant sheep has been widely employed to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved. There is growing awareness that this field of research has major implications for the livestock production industry. From our own studies on sheep we have evidence that maternal undernutrition during the periconceptional period results in altered fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) development, an increased rate of premature birth, altered fetal pancreatic function, insulin signalling and amino acid metabolism, and also alterations in maternal adaptation to pregnancy. We are currently studying the postnatal consequences of these changes. Other research groups have shown that restricted nutrition of sheep in the early part of pregnancy alters postnatal muscle development, fat deposition, cardiovascular regulation and HPAA function. One aim of this review is to illustrate how biomedical research using animals such as the sheep has been used to gain a better understanding of the consequences of reduced maternal nutrition during the periconceptional period. We suggest that there are equally important consequences of this research for the livestock production industries.

MATERNAL NUTRITION AND WEIGHT GAIN AFFECTING OUTCOME OF PREGNANCY

Poor nutritional status and inadequate food intake during and prior to pregnancy not only affect Women’s health but also have negative impact on growth and development of fetus. The birth weight of an infant is a powerful predictor of growth and survival of infant and is dependent on maternal health and nutritional status, pre-pregnancy weight and general weight gain are all strongly associated with fetal growth and development. So, improving maternal nutrition prior to conception and during pregnancy are potential strategies to improve birth weight. The Present study has been carried out to discuss the circumstances under which the effect of maternal nutrition on birth weight can be observed, and to determine the specific contributors of calories and protein to birth weight.&#x0D; Materials and methods: The present study has been carried out at Teaching Medical College and hospital to find out correlation between various factors responsible for maternal weight gain and nutrition with birth weight of baby and to standardize diet chart for pregnant mothers in rural area. The study included 100 women who were followed up from 8 to 10 week of pregnancy till delivery. Anthropometric measurements including maternal weight, height and total weight gain in pregnancy and infant’s birth weight were recorded and all mothers were interviewed for their bio-social variables. Results: The mean birth weight is below 2.4 kg in age &lt;19 years and in 30 years and above, it is &gt;2.5 kg. The mean birth weight in primipara is 2.4 kg and then it gradually increased maximum up to 2.6 kg in multipara. The mean birth weight in 2.4 kg in mothers below 145cm.Above that till 160 cm there is steady increase in birth weight up to 3.08 kg. The mean birth weight was lowest in cases where maternal weight is below 40 kg and it reached maximum 3 kg in weight group 60-69 kg. The mean birth weight is 2.4 kg in weight gain between 5-9 kg and maximum up to 3 kg in weight gain between 15-19 kg. The mean birth weight is 3.2 kg in high socioeconomic group and 2.2 kg in low socioeconomic group.&#x0D; Conclusion: There is definite relation between maternal age, parity, height, pre-pregnancy weight, weight gain during pregnancy, socioeconomic status and daily dietary intake per day and birth weight of baby. So health policies should be aimed at early detection and effective management of under nutrition to reduce the burden of low birth weight babies and there is a need to focus attention on better maternal nutrition and education on birth spacing, early pregnancy and family planning.

Maternal diet and age alter direct and indirect relationships between life‐history traits across multiple generations

Abstract Maternal age has important consequences for offspring fitness, with influences on size, development and reproductive schedules. Such maternal age effects may be driven by differential provisioning of resources; yet, little is known about the role of environmental supply of nutritional resources in mediating such effects. We tested the influence of limiting nutritional resource, dietary phosphorus (P), on maternal age effects across multiple generations by examining the potential interactive effects of maternal nutrition and age on daughter and granddaughter life‐history traits in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulicaria. Maternal age and diet had significant but contrasting effects on offspring life history. We did not observe any evidence that age effects on offspring life history are mediated by maternal diet. However, granddaughter growth and size at maturation were influenced by the interaction between grandmaternal age and diet, suggesting that the appearance of transgenerational effects of age and diet were delayed by one generation. Because offspring life history is often linked directly and/or indirectly to life history variation in previous generations, we utilized structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess such direct or indirect relationships. SEM revealed striking differences in the relationship between growth, development time and fecundity both within and among generations, depending on the age and diet in the F0 generation. Interestingly, direct and persistent relationships between the F0 generation and the F2 generation are most prevalent when grandmothers are old and fed low P diets, and such relationships are largely driven by fecundity in the F0 generation. Additionally, indirect causal relationships between the F0 generation and F2 generation are most pronounced when grandmothers are young and fed low P diets or when grandmothers are old and fed high P diets. Our results indicate that transgenerational effects of maternal age and environment persist across multiple generations, and vary between successive generations. Further, our examination of the interaction network between life‐history traits of each generation suggest that the mechanisms for such persistent transgenerational effects are highly dependent on maternal condition. A plain language summary is available for this article.

The Double-Edged Sword Effects of Maternal Nutrition in the Developmental Programming of Hypertension.

Hypertension is a growing global epidemic. Developmental programming resulting in hypertension can begin in early life. Maternal nutrition status has important implications as a double-edged sword in the developmental programming of hypertension. Imbalanced maternal nutrition causes offspring’s hypertension, while specific nutritional interventions during pregnancy and lactation may serve as reprogramming strategies to reverse programming processes and prevent the development of hypertension. In this review, we first summarize the human and animal data supporting the link between maternal nutrition and developmental programming of hypertension. This review also presents common mechanisms underlying nutritional programming-induced hypertension. This will be followed by studies documenting nutritional interventions as reprogramming strategies to protect against hypertension from developmental origins. The identification of ideal nutritional interventions for the prevention of hypertension development that begins early in life will have a lifelong impact, with profound savings in the global burden of hypertension.

Study of effect of maternal nutrition on breast milk trace elements in malnourished versus well-nourished mothers

Background: Minerals and trace element content of human milk have been a matter of concern among nutritionist in relation to the availability of the essential elements to the new born. Mineral and trace elements occur in the body in a number of chemical forms, such as inorganic ions and salts, or as constituents of organic molecules, for example proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. There is a paucity of data on the effect of nutrition on the composition of trace elements in milk and its effect on the infant. Hence a comparison made between the trace element and mineral such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, calcium in milk of malnourished and well-nourished mothers in order to determine the effect of maternal nutrition on the quality of milk and its effect on the growth and physical development of the new-born.Methods: Around 100 mothers were enrolled in the study after obtaining prior informed consent. They were divided into 2 groups-group I had 50 malnourished mothers and group II had 50 well-nourished mothers. The pre-fed milk sample which was collected was stored at - 20℃ until it was processed. It was thawed and analysed for copper, zinc, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and calcium.Results: The mean levels of trace elements (iron and zinc) and minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) were slightly more among well-nourished than malnourished women. Values of only copper were significantly higher in the colostrum of well-nourished as compared to that of the malnourished mothers.Conclusions: The parameters of weight, height weight/height ratio and hemoglobin varied significantly between the well-nourished and malnourished mothers. The difference in milk content of malnourished and well-nourished mothers is not significant for sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc. However, copper levels were significantly higher in well-nourished mothers.

Maternal Soluble Fiber Diet during Pregnancy Changes the Intestinal Microbiota, Improves Growth Performance, and Reduces Intestinal Permeability in Piglets.

Increasing evidence suggests that maternal diet during pregnancy modifies an offspring's microbiota composition and intestinal development in a long-term manner. However, the effects of maternal soluble fiber diet during pregnancy on growth traits and the developing intestine are still underexplored. Sows were allocated to either a control or 2.0% pregelatinized waxy maize starch plus guar gum (SF) dietary treatment during gestation. Growth performance, diarrhea incidence, gut microbiota composition and metabolism, and gut permeability and inflammation status of 14-day-old suckling piglets were analyzed. The maternal SF diet improved the growth rate and decreased the incidence of diarrhea in the piglets. Next-generation sequencing analysis revealed that the intestinal microbiota composition was altered by a maternal SF diet. The fecal and plasma levels of acetate and butyrate were also increased. Furthermore, a maternal SF diet reduced the levels of plasma zonulin and fecal lipocalin-2 but increased the plasma concentrations of interleukin 10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). Additionally, the increased relative abundances of Lactobacillus spp. in SF piglets were positively correlated with growth rate, while the decreased abundances of Bilophila spp. were positively correlated with fecal lipocalin-2 levels. Our data reveal that a maternal SF diet during pregnancy has remarkable effects on an offspring's growth traits and intestinal permeability and inflammation, perhaps by modulating the composition and metabolism of gut microbiota.IMPORTANCE Although the direct effects of dietary soluble fiber on gut microbiota have been extensively studied, the more indirect effects of maternal nutrition solely during pregnancy on the development of the offspring's intestine are until now largely unexplored. Our data show that a maternal soluble fiber diet during pregnancy is independently associated with changes in the intestinal microbiota composition and metabolism of suckling piglets. These findings have direct implications for refining dietary recommendations in pregnancy. Moreover, a maternal soluble fiber diet reduces intestinal permeability and prevents intestinal inflammation and an excessive systemic immune response of suckling piglets. Therefore, the suckling piglets' resistance to disease was enhanced, diarrhea was reduced, and weight gain was raised. Additionally, the changes in gut microbiota in response to a maternal soluble fiber diet may also be directly correlated with the offspring's growth and gut development.