Effective Emotion Regulation Strategies Research Articles

On what do therapists agree? Assessing therapist evaluations of emotion regulation strategy effectiveness.

To develop more unified, process-based, and disseminable psychotherapy treatments, it is important to determine whether there is consensus among therapists regarding intervention strategies. Because emotion regulation is a cornerstone of modern treatments and a thriving area of clinical research, we assessed therapists' ratings of the effectiveness of commonly studied emotion regulation strategies. Therapists (n=582) read eleven vignettes describing stressful scenarios and rated the effectiveness of ten emotion regulation strategies in each scenario. Across therapists, we found general consensus regarding the most (i.e., problem-solving) and least (i.e., concealing emotions) effective strategies. Cognitive/behavioural/third-wave therapists rated acceptance and distraction as more effective, and emotional expression and gathering information as less effective, than other therapists, Fs>4.20, ps<.05, whereas hours of clinical experience were generally unrelated to strategy effectiveness ratings. We discuss what these points of agreement and relative disagreement among therapists reveal about a more unified, process-based treatment approach and how these results can guide emotion regulation research. There is general consensus among practising therapists that problem-solving is the most effective emotion regulation strategy and expressive suppression is the least effective. However, CBT-oriented therapists rated acceptance and distraction as more effective than non-CBT-oriented therapists. Non-CBT-oriented therapists rated emotional expression and gathering information as more effective than CBT-oriented therapists. Years of experience were unrelated to ratings of emotion regulation strategy effectiveness.

Psychiatric symptoms and emotion regulation strategies among the unemployed people in Korea: A latent profile analysis.

This study aimed to explore the profiles of emotion regulation strategies among unemployed people, and to examine the association of latent profiles with demographics and psychiatric symptoms. The study included 136 men (42.8%) and 182 women (57.2%). The average age of the participants was 35.84 years (SD = 26.83). Latent profile analysis was used to determine emotion regulation strategy profiles. Associated factors of profile membership were identified with multinomial logistic regression. The four-profile model (low adaptive emotion regulation class, low negative emotion regulation/moderate positive regulation class, high negative emotion regulation/support-seeking class, adaptive emotion regulation class) was selected as the best solution. As a result of examining the probability of being classified into each class according to emotional difficulties, the lower the level of anxiety and somatization, the higher the probability of belonging to the class 2 adaptive emotion regulation class (n = 56, 18%). The higher the depression, the higher the probability of being classified into class 4 (n = 65, 20%) using a lot of negative emotion regulation strategies. The results of this study indicate that unemployed people can be classified into various subgroups according to their emotion regulation strategies. Also, the probability of being classified into each subgroup was different based on the types of emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety, and somatization. Through the results of this study, it is possible to understand the relationship between the psychiatric symptoms of unemployed people and emotion regulation strategies and to suggest methods for promoting effective emotion regulation strategies among this population group.

Impact of attachment imagery on paranoia and mood: evidence from two single case studies.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for psychosis currently yields modest outcomes and must be improved. Attachment imagery may be an effective means of reducing severity of paranoid beliefs and associated affect. Experimental studies have demonstrated these effects in non-clinical groups. The impact in clinical populations remains untested. This study assessed the impact of a brief attachment imagery task on paranoia and mood, in two people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Two single case studies are presented. Both participants were working age adults with persecutory delusions. The study utilised an A-B-A design. Participants were recruited for a 6-week period, with a 2- and 3-week baseline respectively, 1-week intervention phase, and follow-up phase matched to duration of baseline. Trait paranoia and attachment were measured at the start of the baseline. State paranoia and affect were measured daily over the 6-week period. For both participants, the baseline phase was characterised by high and variable levels of paranoia, which reduced during the intervention phase, with a return to baseline scores at follow-up. We found a similar pattern for negative affect, and the reverse pattern for positive affect. Attachment imagery may function as an effective emotion regulation strategy for people with psychosis. Continued use is likely to be needed to maintain gains. This brief task could prove valuable to people needing skills to manage paranoia and mood, and give clinicians confidence that people can manage short-term distress in CBT for psychosis, for example when addressing past trauma.

Gender differences in the associations of reappraisal and humor styles

AbstractReappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy that draws on cognitive processes–like changing one’s thoughts to change one’s feelings–that are similar to those implicated in humor. Yet, very little is known about the links between the dispositional tendency to use reappraisal and individuals’ humor styles (e. g. aggressive, affiliative, self-deprecating, self-enhancing). Importantly, there are gender differences both in emotion regulatory processes and in the use of humor styles. We examined gender differences in reported use of humor styles, the associations between reappraisal and humor styles, and whether gender moderated those associations. Participants (N=250) were recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk and self-reported their dispositional use of reappraisal and four humor styles. Men reported greater use of aggressive humor compared to women. Dispositional use of reappraisal was positively associated with self-enhancing humor. In addition, reappraisal use was positively related to greater use of affiliative humor, and this association was stronger for men than women. For men, greater use of reappraisal was associated with greater use of self-defeating humor, but reappraisal was negatively associated with self-defeating humor for women. Findings extend insight from prior work and suggest that both reappraisal and specific ways of using humor draw on aspects of self-regulatory competence rooted in cognitive change abilities, and the patterns of association differ in interesting ways for men and women.

EMOTION REGULATION DIFFICULTIES IN DEPRESSION

Patients diagnosed with depression often experience difficulty in regulating their emotions due to non-adaptive regulatory strategies (e.g., avoidance, suppression, rumination). Adaptive emotion regulation skills (e.g., awareness, acceptance, self-support) can be trained and improved through psychological treatment. The objective of this study was to identify differences in emotion regulation skills between a clinical group of patients with depression (n=56) and a non-clinical group (n=56), adults without symptoms of depression. Methods. The study was based on socio-demographic survey and three self-report questionnaires adapted for use in Latvia: Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz &amp; Roemer, 2004), Emotion Regulation Skills Questionnaire (ERSQ; Berking &amp; Znoj, 2008) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross &amp; John, 2003). Results. Compared to the non-clinical group, the clinical group presented significantly decreased scores in several scales of ERSQ: Understanding, Self-support, Tolerance, Acceptance, Modification (p&lt;.001) and increased scores in four scales of DERS: Lack of emotional clarity, Difficulty engaging in goal-directed behaviour, Non-acceptance of emotional responses and Limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies (p&lt;.001). Conclusions. This study helps to identify the main emotion regulation difficulties for depression patients in Latvia – the ability to understand, accept, tolerate and modify emotions.

Body Dissatisfaction and Bulimic Symptoms: Moderator Roles of Compassionate and Uncompassionate Self-Responding

Previous studies suggest that emotion regulation difficulties are influential in body dissatisfaction’s relationship with bulimic symptoms. Likewise, self-compassion, which is explained through the factors of compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding, was also suggested to function as an effective emotion regulation strategy. However, research has not examined self-compassion’s moderating role in the link between body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms or the unique contribution of self-compassion to bulimic symptoms that is independent from its overlap with emotion regulation difficulties. The current study investigated the unique moderator functions of self-compassion, in the form of compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding, and emotion regulation difficulties in the association between body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms. Participants were 154 females (M (SD) age = 23.89 (4.66) years) who completed questionnaires assessing body dissatisfaction, self-compassion, emotion regulation difficulties, and bulimic symptoms. Analyses showed that compassionate self-responding factor of self-compassion was a unique buffer against the negative consequences of body dissatisfaction even when controlling for emotion regulation difficulties, while emotion regulation difficulties did not have a moderating effect when self-compassion was accounted for. Results revealed that body dissatisfaction was significantly associated with bulimic symptoms in women with low and middle levels of compassionate self-responding, but not with high levels of compassionate self-responding. Overall, results suggest that self-compassion buffers the negative impact of body dissatisfaction through mechanisms that are distinct from those of emotion regulation difficulties. These findings warrant further study of self-compassion to better understand its mechanisms of action.

How mindfulness shapes the situational use of emotion regulation strategies in daily life

ABSTRACT Mindfulness is associated with a wide range of beneficial outcomes such as well-being. However, less is known about the mechanisms underlying these benefits. Some researchers suggest that the benefits could be driven by emotion regulation, either by improving the effectiveness of emotion regulation or by lessening the need for effortful emotion regulation. By using two longitudinal Ambulatory Assessment data sets (NStudy1 = 125, NStudy2 = 175), based on a six-week randomised controlled trial and a one-week study, we tested these competing notions in daily life and found support for the latter: Mindfulness, and especially its non-judgmental acceptance facet, was significantly associated with less use of emotion regulation strategies. However, mindfulness was not significantly associated with more effective emotion regulation strategy implementation. Moreover, the mindfulness training focusing on present-moment attention and awareness did not significantly influence emotion regulation. These findings demonstrate the importance of the non-judgmental acceptance component for emotion regulation and affective well-being.

Lower Cardiac Vagal Activity Predicts Self-Reported Difficulties With Emotion Regulation in Adolescents With ADHD.

ObjectiveTo investigate the relation between cardiac vagal activity (CVA), a measure of autonomic nervous system (ANS) flexibility, and self-reported emotion regulation (ER) difficulties in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and controls.MethodsThe sample comprised 11–17-year-old adolescents with ADHD (n=34) and controls (n = 33). Multiple linear regression analyses investigated the relation between CVA, as indexed by high frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), and ER difficulties as assessed by the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Supplemental analyses were performed in ADHD and control groups separately. Analyses assessed effects of body mass index (BMI), physical activity levels, and HF peak as a surrogate of respiration on CVA.ResultsLower CVA was associated with ER difficulties, and specifically with limited access to effective ER strategies. When investigating the relation between CVA and ER in the ADHD and control groups separately, there was a tendency of lower CVA predicting limited access to effective ER strategies in the ADHD group, and not in the control group.ConclusionThe results suggest that lower CVA, i.e., reduced ANS flexibility, in adolescents with ADHD and controls is associated with self-reported ER difficulties, and specifically with limited access to effective ER strategies. There was a tendency for lower CVA to predict limited ER strategies only in the adolescents with ADHD and not controls.

The role of emotion dysregulation in negative affect reactivity to a trauma cue: Differential associations through elicited posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms

BackgroundRecent research has linked emotion dysregulation with increases in subjective ratings of negative affect (NA reactivity) to trauma reminders, a central symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The current study adds to this burgeoning line of research by exploring elicited PTSD symptoms as a mechanism explicating the relation between emotion dysregulation and NA reactivity following trauma cue exposure. MethodsParticipants were 60 treatment-seeking marijuana users with insomnia symptoms who reported exposure to a traumatic event. Participants were administered questionnaires assessing emotion dysregulation, PTSD symptoms, and NA prior to and/or after listening to a personalized trauma script, and subsequently completed a diagnostic interview. ResultsResults demonstrated that greater emotion dysregulation was associated with heightened NA reactivity through re-experiencing symptoms, but not avoidance or dissociation symptoms, even after accounting for past 30-day PTSD symptom severity and pre-trauma script NA. These effects were driven by the dimensions of emotion dysregulation characterized by nonacceptance of negative emotions and limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies. LimitationsThis study requires replication among other clinical samples, and is limited by use of self-report measures. ConclusionsFindings provide novel empirical support for one mechanism through which emotion dysregulation may confer vulnerability to PTSD symptomology, and offer implications for refining PTSD treatments.

Association Between Interoception and Emotion Regulation in Individuals With Alcohol Use Disorder.

IntroductionSensing body-related information includes interoceptive sensibility (the tendency to focus on internal body sensations) and accuracy (precision in perceiving real internal processes). Interoception and emotion regulation have both been linked to alcohol use disorder (AUD). However, the association between these factors have not been investigated within a clinical group of individuals with AUD.ObjectivesThe current study examines associations between emotion regulation and interoceptive accuracy and sensibility among individuals with AUD and healthy controls (HCs).MethodsThe sample comprised 165 individuals meeting criteria for AUD and 110 HCs. Interoceptive sensibility was assessed with a self-report measure (the Private Body Consciousness subscale) and interoceptive accuracy – with a behavioral measure (the Schandry test). Emotion regulation domains: non-acceptance of negative emotions, inability to engage in goal-directed behaviors when experiencing negative emotions, difficulties controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions, limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies, and lack of own emotional awareness and clarity were assessed with the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Associations between interoception and emotion regulation were assessed while controlling for sleep problems, depressive symptoms, age, and sex.ResultsHigher interoceptive accuracy was negatively associated with DERS subscale of non-acceptance of negative emotions in the AUD group (but not in the HC group). Higher interoceptive sensibility was significantly associated with problems in controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions. This association was moderated by symptoms of AUD. Higher interoceptive sensibility was associated with higher emotional awareness, but only in the HC group.ConclusionsIndividuals with AUD who are more interoceptively accurate may be more effective in regulating their emotions. On the other hand, individuals with AUD who are more interoceptively sensible, may have problems with controlling their behaviors while experiencing negative emotional states.

Cognitive Reappraisal Facilitates Decentering: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis Study.

Previous studies have suggested that cognitive reappraisal, which is an effective emotion regulation strategy, enhances decentering. On the other hand, other studies have implied the reverse in regard to this relationship: that decentering supports cognitive reappraisal. However, these possibilities have not yet been examined empirically. In the present study, we investigated the causal relationship between decentering and cognitive reappraisal by conducting two wave cross-lagged analysis. One hundred and thirty-eight Japanese university students responded to a questionnaire comprising measures of decentering and cognitive reappraisal tendency; the questionnaire was administered on two occasions, with an interval of 1 month. Cross-lagged analysis indicated the positive effect of cognitive reappraisal on decentering; however, the reverse possibility, that decentering influences cognitive reappraisal, was not significant. These results suggested that habitual use of cognitive reappraisal fosters decentering.

Perfectionism and emotion regulation in adolescents: A two-wave longitudinal study

The present research represents the first study investigating the relation between perfectionism and emotion regulation in a sample of adolescents using a longitudinal design with two time points spaced one month apart. A non-clinical sample of 227 adolescents aged 15–18 years completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. Results of cross-lagged analyses showed that self-oriented perfectionism predicted relative increases in adolescents’ use of reappraisal (i.e., an adaptive emotion regulation strategy) and relative decreases in non-acceptance of negative emotional responses (i.e., difficulty in emotion regulation). In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism predicted relative increases in adolescents’ difficulties in emotion regulation (i.e., non-acceptance of negative emotional responses, difficulties controlling impulsive behaviors when distressed, limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity). Implications for the understanding of the role perfectionism plays in the development and maintenance of adolescents’ emotion regulation strategies and difficulties are discussed.

Less is more: Morphometric and psychological differences between low and high reappraisers.

Emotion regulation plays a crucial role in an individual's well-being, as it is known that deficits in regulating emotions can lead to psychological and psychiatric disorders. Cognitive reappraisal is widely considered to be an adaptive and effective emotion-regulation strategy. People are more or less able to apply it, but it is still not clear how reappraisal affects brain structures and the psychological profile of individuals. In our study we thus aimed to explore the impact of applying reappraisal at both the neural and the psychological level. Source-based morphometry (SBM), a whole-brain multivariate method based on the Independent Component Analysis that extracts patterns of covariation of gray matter ("independent networks"), was applied to the MRI images of 37 participants. In order to enrich their psychological profiles, we measured their experienced affectivity (PANAS) and their empathic abilities (IRI). Based on the frequency of applying reappraisal (ERQ), participants were divided into low and high reappraisers (18 vs. 19). An independent source of gray matter emerged as being different between the groups: specifically, low reappraisers showed more gray matter volume concentration in a network including the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions as compared to high reappraisers. At the psychological level, low reappraisers reported a more strongly experienced negative affect, while no difference among reappraisers emerged with regard to empathic abilities. Capitalizing on a multivariate method for structural analysis that is innovative in this field, this study extends previous observations on individual differences in the ability to regulate emotions, and it describes a plausible impact of reappraisal on brain structures and affectivity.

Reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy in children with Tourette syndrome and ADHD

Background and objectivesDifficulties in emotion regulation (ER) have been associated with several psychiatric disorders, emphasizing a need for a greater understanding of the concept and its associations with disruptive behavior. We aimed to study the ER strategy of cognitive reappraisal with an experimental test to increase our knowledge of emotional processes in child psychopathology. MethodsIn the present study, we examined emotional reactivity and cognitive reappraisal with a computer task in 160 medication-naïve children aged 8–12 comprising four groups: Fifty-eight children with Tourette syndrome (TS), 26 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 19 children with TS and ADHD, and 57 typically developing controls. ResultsThe use of cognitive reappraisal reduced negative affect across all participants and the ability to reappraise was positively correlated with age, whereas reactivity was not. Overall, groups did not differ in reactivity or regulation success. Looking at specific differences within groups, however, only the ADHD group did not significantly decrease negative affect when reappraising. Finally, the use of strategies considered to be efficacious was correlated with regulation success, whereas the use of a less adaptive strategy related to suppression was associated with reactivity, but not regulation of emotions. LimitationsThe study was limited by small, clinical contrast groups and a lack of blinding to diagnostic status in the coding of verbal strategies employed during the task. ConclusionsCognitive reappraisal appears to be a beneficial ER strategy for children regardless of diagnostic status. Our findings indicate that children can learn and employ an adaptive ER strategy when instructed in the technique, even in the presence of attention problems, which is highly relevant to therapeutic approaches to dysregulated behavior.

Do I really feel better? Effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies depends on the measure and social anxiety.

Effective emotion regulation (ER) is important to long-term healthy functioning, but little is known about what constitutes effective ER in the moment or how social anxiety symptoms and different strategies influence short-term effectiveness outcomes. Intensive ecological momentary data from N = 124 college students illustrate how different ways of operationalizing ER effectiveness leads to different conclusions about the short-term effectiveness of different strategies in daily life. When effectiveness is operationalized as the degree to which participants judged that their ER attempts made them feel better, social anxiety severity was negatively associated with effectiveness, and avoidance-oriented strategies were judged to be less effective than engagement-oriented strategies. In contrast, when effectiveness is operationalized as the degree of change in self-reported affect following ER attempts, social anxiety severity was not related to effectiveness, and avoidance-oriented strategies were more effective than engagement-oriented strategies. Social anxiety and ER strategy type did not interact in either model, regardless of how effectiveness was measured. The study highlights discrepancies when examining two common but distinct ways of measuring the same overarching effectiveness construct, and raises intriguing questions about how forms of psychopathology that are intimately tied to emotion dysregulation, like social anxiety, moderate different ways of measuring the effectiveness of ER attempts.

To reappraise or not to reappraise? Emotion regulation choice and cognitive energetics.

Research shows that cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation (ER) strategy that often has clear benefits. Yet, surprisingly, recent findings demonstrate that people use cognitive reappraisal less frequently than might be expected (Suri, Whittaker, & Gross, 2015). We employ cognitive energetics theory (CET) to explain this puzzling behavior. CET posits that the likelihood of launching any cognitive process is a function of two opposing forces: the driving force (i.e., the motivation to launch the process) and the restraining force (i.e., task difficulty). We thus hypothesized that people choose to use cognitive reappraisal relatively rarely because of the difficulty of implementing it. We also postulated that the decision to reappraise (or not) does not simply depend on stimuli emotional intensity because the latter is associated with both the driving and the restraining forces. In support of our hypotheses, we found that when the images' emotional intensity posed difficulty for reappraisal (i.e., highly intense images), reducing this difficulty by asking participants to merely predict others' (Study 1) or their own choices (Study 2) increased reappraisal choice. Finally, in Study 3, we show that a relatively easy to implement reappraisal strategy was chosen more often than the more difficult one for high (but not low) intensity images. These findings illustrate the relevance of a CET-based motivational analysis to emotion regulation choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive and Negative Affect Mediate the Influences of a Maladaptive Emotion Regulation Strategy on Sleep Quality

Positive affect, negative affect, and emotion regulation strategies are related to sleep quality. Emotion regulation can also act as either a protective factor against the development of psychopathologies, or as a risk factor for their development, and therefore may be one mechanism linking mental health and sleep. However, currently it is not known whether affect can mediate the impact of emotion regulation strategy use on sleep quality. An opportunity sample in a healthy population completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule providing measures of positive and negative affect, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index providing a measure of sleep quality, and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire to record habitual use of emotion regulation strategies. Data were analysed using regression and mediation analyses. Negative affect and expressive suppression were positively correlated with PSQI score suggesting that as negative affect and expressive suppression use increased, sleep quality decreased. Positive affect was negatively correlated with PSQI score suggesting that as positive affect increased sleep quality improved. Further, mediation analyses revealed that both positive affect and negative affect mediated the impact of expressive suppression on sleep quality. Moreover, this partial mediation provides the first description that the influences of affect and expressive suppression on sleep quality are at least partially distinct. Targeting improvements in negative affect and effective emotion regulation strategy use may improve the efficacy of interventions aimed at improving sleep quality and the reduction in symptomology in psychopathologies.

Breath-focused mindfulness alters early and late components during emotion regulation

Breath-focused mindfulness (BFM), which induces changes in brain structure and function, is applied in the clinical treatment of mental disorders as a method to regulate one’s emotions. However, whether BFM works through a top-down emotional regulation strategy to alter brain dynamics and its relationship with individual differences in trait mindfulness are unclear. Event-related potentials (ERPs) of 20 healthy BFM-naïve undergraduates were recorded when they conducted BFM/viewing tasks while viewing affective pictures. Participants completed the Attentional Control Scale (ACS) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). The results indicated that under the viewing condition, positive and negative pictures elicited greater P1, N2, and late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes than did neutral pictures. However, BFM attenuated P1, N2, and LPP amplitudes for positive and negative pictures but not for neutral pictures. P1 amplitudes for emotional minus neutral pictures correlated with individual differences in focus attention measured by the ACS, while N2 amplitudes for emotional minus neutral pictures correlated with individual differences in trait mindfulness measured by the MAAS. These observations suggest that, consistent with the dual-process model, BFM is an effective emotion regulation strategy and might activate the dorsal top-down prefrontal system to alter early and late neural dynamics of affective processing.

‘Making space’: a study into the use of mindfulness for alternative school teachers

AbstractAs teachers seek to educate and transform lives, often with limited resources and time, they can experience varying levels of stress and emotional exhaustion, particularly if effective emotion regulation strategies are not employed. The experience of teacher stress may be heightened in alternative schools that provide educational opportunities for students who present with complex needs and are ‘at-risk’ of withdrawing from the conventional school system. This case study explored the perceived outcomes of a 6-week school-based mindfulness program to manage stress and support the emotion regulation of four teachers at a metropolitan Australian alternative school. The study took a mixed-methods approach to data collection, which included self-report questionnaires, interview responses and journal reflections. A number of limitations, such as small sample size and lack of experimental design, had an impact on the generalisability of the study’s findings. However, a range of beneficial outcomes emerged in association with the mindfulness program, revealing that participants experienced increased levels of both mindfulness and emotion regulation ability, in conjunction with decreased stress and emotional exhaustion levels.

Keep your cool and win the game: Emotion regulation and performance in table tennis

People often feel anxious prior to performance situations, and this can lead to performance decrements. Thus, applying effective emotion regulation strategies could be crucial for achieving maximum performance. We investigated the relation between dispositional precompetition emotion regulation and competition performance. Participants were 310 table tennis players (240 men, Mage =39.07, SD=15.99). Self-reported emotion regulation behavior was matched with objective performance data. We found that positive cognitive change strategies were positively related and negative cognitive change strategies were negatively related to winning in competitions. Furthermore, athletes with a higher performance status more often used situation modification, positive cognitive change, and response modulation strategies. Our findings contribute to personality research by providing evidence for the (non)effectiveness of certain emotion regulation strategies.