Effect Of IR Drop Research Articles

Offline Training-Based Mitigation of IR Drop for ReRAM-Based Deep Neural Network Accelerators

Recently, resistive RAM (ReRAM)-based hardware accelerators showed unprecedented performance compared the digital accelerators. Technology scaling causes an inevitable increase in interconnect wire resistance, which leads to IR drops that could limit the performance of ReRAM-based accelerators. These IR drops deteriorate the signal integrity and quality, especially in the crossbar structures which are used to build high-density ReRAMs. Hence, finding a software solution, which can predict the effect of IR drop without involving expensive hardware or SPICE simulations, is very desirable. In this article, we propose two neural networks models to predict the impact of the IR drop problem. These models are used to evaluate the performance of the different deep neural network (DNN) models including binary and quantized neural networks showing similar performance (i.e., recognition accuracy) to the golden validation (i.e., SPICE-based DNN validation). In addition, these predication models are incorporated into the DNN training framework to efficiently retrain the DNN models and bridge the accuracy drop. To further enhance the validation accuracy, we propose incremental training methods. The DNN validation results, done through SPICE simulations, show very high improvement in performance close to the baseline performance, which demonstrates the efficacy of the proposed method even with challenging datasets, such as CIFAR10 and SVHN.

Effects of the IR Drop on the Electrochemical Corrosion of X80 Pipeline Steel in Different Solutions

Polarization curves are popularly used in many investigations; however, some wrong results are obtained when inexperienced researchers do not deeply understand electrochemical processes. In this study, the effects of the IR drop (Deviation due to I (current) and R (resistance)) and scanning direction on polarization curves were investigated. Three different test methods were used to test the polarization curve of X80 pipeline steel in five kinds of solutions. The different scanning directions led to differences in the cathodic polarization curves. In addition, the effect of IR drop on the Tafel curve in acidic solutions is significantly greater than in neutral and alkaline solutions. There is a large effect of the IR drop on shapes and fitting results of polarization curves in acidic solutions, and the IR drop must be considered for the fitting of curves. Scanning direction has an influence on the shape of polarization curves when a layer of corrosion products is formed on the steel surface, and a novel two-electrode coupon was introduced to solve this problem.

P‐13.11: Highly Efficient Electric‐Thermal Simulation for AMOLED Design

Along with the development of advanced display technology, the specification of display panel gets increasingly demanding, taking more factors into consideration in FPD designs. Because of parasitic resistance and capacitance, marked IR‐Drop effects are detected in high resolution display panel, leading to electrical and optical specification defects therein [1,2]. Power/thermal of the power source line serves as a key index affecting complex FPD designs. In this article, we provide a highly efficient full panel electric‐thermal simulation flow, which facilitates designers to accurately assess the effect of IRDrop and then simulate the power/thermal distribution map of a full panel. Precise simulation of device/wire current and voltage as well as current density also helps to optimize active matrix OLED pixel design.

SRAM on-chip monitoring methodology for high yield and energy efficient memory operation at near threshold voltage

Low power design by near-threshold voltage (NTV) operation is very attractive since it affords to considerably mitigate the sharp increase of power dissipation. However, one key barrier for the use of NTV operation is the significant increase of the SRAM failure. In this work, we propose an on-chip SRAM monitoring methodology that is able to accurately predict the minimum voltage, Vddmin, on each die that does not cause SRAM read and write failures, which are majorities of SRAM failures, under a target confidence level. Precisely, we propose an SRAM monitor, from which we measure a maximum voltage, Vfail, that causes functional failure on that SRAM monitor. Then, we propose a novel methodology of inferring SRAM Vˆddmin on each die from the measured Vfail of SRAM monitor on the same die where Vfail-Vddmin correlation table is built-up in design infra development phase, and Vˆddmin can be directly derived from the measured Vfail referencing the correlation table in silicon production phase. Through experiments, we confirm that our proposed methodology is able to save leakage power by 10.45%, read energy by 4.99%, and write energy by 5.45% in SRAM bitcell array over that by applying a uniform minimum voltage for all dies while meeting the same yield constraint. In addition, the effect of IR drop and process variations of peripheral circuit on Vddmin prediction is taken into account by reflecting them on SRAM bitcell operation. We also solidify our Vddmin prediction methodology by considering the prevention of potential SRAM access failures for high-speed designs as well as the SRAM read and write failures.

Effect of IR Drop on Reinforced Concrete Corrosion Measurements

The ohmic voltage drop (IR) due to the high resistivity of concrete needs to be considered while monitoring the corrosion performance of rebar embedded in concrete. It helps to evaluate the corrosion condition precisely. Concrete mixes were contaminated with chlorides, sulphates, and a combination of chloride plus sulphate solutions as mix water. To assess the IR drop error in corrosion measurements caused by concrete with different salts, linear polarization resistance values were measured with and without IR compensation. The results indicate that the concrete contaminated with 5% of chloride has shown higher error as compared to 2% of sulphates, due to high corrosion current density. However, from the results of chloride and chloride plus sulphate contaminated concrete, it is also confirmed that the IR drop error is not absolute to determine the solution resistance. The higher corrosion in chloride contaminated concrete as compared to chloride plus sulphate contaminated concrete is also observed due to the availability of high chloride concentration. The results of the present study are suggested that the IR drop compensation should be considered when the reinforced structures are exposed to chloride and sulphate environment.

Methods for Failure Analysis and Diagnosis of Millimeter-Wave System-in-Packages

This paper presents a sequence of affordable methods applied to diagnose a millimeter-wave system-in-package. The module used in this paper is a 60 GHz transceiver with a waveguide interface, designed to transmit 8 dBm of saturated power. It consists of a flip-chipped RFIC, a multi-layer organic substrate, a metal enclosure with a standard waveguide interface, passive components and a 30-pin connector. The first measured output power was 3 to 6 dB below the desired value over the 60 GHz band. Thus, all parts of the module were thoroughly investigated to detect the cause of power drop. By 3-D electromagnetic simulation of the enclosure, the cavity modes and power leakage in the enclosure were detected, which were verified by measuring the scattering parameters of the back to back configuration. By statistical analysis of the scanning electron microscope images of the cross section of 10 SiP samples, the realized dimensions of the fabricated substrate were measured and applied to the post-fabrication simulation, resulting in a 4 GHz shift in the frequency response. To measure the high frequency performance of the RFIC independent of the enclosure and transition, focused ion beam milling was used to isolate die from waveguide transition, and generate probing pads to directly measure the die output power. Furthermore, the effect of IR-drop, caused by the evaluation board circuits and connector, on the output power as well as the frequency response of the connector were measured. Finally, it is shown that by the full-wave analysis of the layout in HFSS, the resonating traces can be detected and modified to avoid power drop. At the end an algorithm is proposed for the diagnosis and fault detection of mm-wave system-in-packages.

Clock skew verification in the presence of IR-drop in the power distribution network

Clocks are perhaps the most important circuits in high-speed digital systems. The design of clock circuitry and the quality of clock signals directly impact the performance of a very large scale integrated chip. Clock skew verification requires high accuracy and is typically performed using circuit simulators. However in high-performance deep-submicrometer digital circuits, clocks are running at higher frequencies and are driving more gates than ever, thus presenting a higher current load on the power distribution network with the potential for substantial power grid voltage (IR)-drop. This IR-drop affects the clock timing and must be taken into account in the verification process. Since IR-drop is a full-chip phenomenon, the use of standard circuit simulation on both the clock circuitry and the power-grid is not practical. In this paper, we present a new methodology for the verification of clock delay and skew. An iterative technique is presented for clock simulation in the presence of full-chip dynamic IR-drop. The effect of IR-drop on the timing of clock signals is quantified on a small example, and demonstrated on a large chip.

Thin lead dioxide electrodes for high current density applications in semi-bipolar batteries

In the present paper, Plante-formed, thin-foil lead dioxide electrodes for applications in a semi-bipolar battery construction have been studied using impedance measurements, phase characterization and galvanostatic cycling. The effect of interparticle contact, IR-drop, porosity and mechanical pressure on the cell capacity were investigated in order to gain information about capacity-limiting parameters at high current discharges. The results showed that a more porous electrode received a capacity loss due to increased IR-drop, which in turn was caused by a decreased interparticle contact. The interparticle contact was found to be more important than porosity as a capacity-limiting factor. By exerting an external pressure over the cell, it was possible to increase the initial capacity for high current density discharges.

A theoretical expression for the effect of IR drop on the current response in a potential step experiment

A theoretical expression is presented which includes the effect of IR drop on the current response following a potential step. The expression is valid for reversible and irreversible simple heterogeneous electron transfer under planar diffusion conditions. The introduction of uncompensated resistance in the model enables calculation of a theoretically correct chronoamperometric response. Curve shapes in related voltammetric techniques such as normal pulse voltammetry are easily derived. The theoretical chronoamperometric and normal pulse voltammetric responses are verified experimentally.

Detection of the Initiation of Pitting by the Higher Harmonic Content of Electrochemical Response

Abstract The use of the higher harmonic content in the electrochemical current response to an applied 30 mHz sinusoidal potential for detecting the onset of pitting corrosion in Al 8090 and type 304 stainless steel has been evaluated. The level of higher frequencies relative to the fundamental in the AC current signal increases just when pitting initiates. However, the relative intensity of the higher frequency component decreases as the rate of pitting increases contrary the prediction of a simple model. This decrease with increasing pitting current is attributed to the increasing importance of the effect of IR drop.

IR drop compensation for corrosion rate determination of carbon steel in acid solutions

The application of the large potential approximation method (extrapolation of the linear range of the polarization curves to the corrosion potential) for corrosion rate determination of carbon steel in acid solutions was investigated. The effect of uncompensated IR drop is discussed and a technique involving its theoretical compensation is described. This technique makes corrosion rate and Tafel slope determination possible. Its reliability was assessed with a gravimetric method.

IR correction Part II. Effect on corrosion monitoring

The effect of iR drop on the corrosion rates obtained by curve fitting of the polarisation data around the corrosion potential is an increase in the corrosion current calculated, which is in direct contrast to linear polarisation measurements. The ba values and, for an activation-controlled cathodic process the bc values, are increased by added ohmic resistance, Ru. This more than offsets the increase in Rp and so the icorr increases. For a diffusion-controlled cathodic process the bc becomes negative with added Ru. All the results are not unduly affected by up to ±2% random error. A current-interrupt method of iR correction has been used for steel corroding in a deaerated H2SO4 solution to demonstrate the effect of iR correction.

IR correction : Part II. Effect on corrosion monitoring

The effect of iR drop on the corrosion rates obtained by curve fitting of the polarisation data around the corrosion potential is an increase in the corrosion current calculated, which is in direct contrast to linear polarisation measurements. The b a values and, for an activation-controlled cathodic process the b c values, are increased by added ohmic resistance, R u. This more than offsets the increase in R p and so the i corr increases. For a diffusion-controlled cathodic process the b c becomes negative with added R u. All the results are not unduly affected by up to ±2% random error. A current-interrupt method of iR correction has been used for steel corroding in a deaerated H 2SO 4 solution to demonstrate the effect of iR correction.

Studies in electrocrystallization: Part III. The effect of ohmic and finite risetime distortions on data acquisition in 2D nucleation and growth

The effect of uncompensated iR-drop on two-dimensional nucleation and growth is described. Both instantaneous and progressive nucleation laws are considered. Also the effect of the finite risetime of potential square-waves on the experimental data acquisition is presented. Data are examined in terms of current-time transients and also in terms of the transient maximum parameters i m and t m. It is demonstrated that neglect of ohmic and finite risetime factors causes complex distortions of rate data, particularly at short times. Prospects of minimising these distortions are briefly considered.

The effect of IR-drop on corrosion rates calculated from low polarization data

Corrosion rates calculated from low polarization data can have substantial errors due to uncompensated solution/surface film resistance, R, even in solutions of moderate conductivity. The resulting uncompensated IR-drop has the effect of increasing the calculated values of polarization resistance which by itself would be expected to make calculated corrosion rates too low. However, calculated corrosion rates can be too high due to an uncompensated IR-drop in cases where both polarization resistance, R p and anodic Tafel slope for the metal, b a, M , are calculated from low polarization data. This is true for metals corroding under conditions where the cathodic reaction(s) are limited by diffusion, because there is a greater positive error in calculated values of b a, M than in R p . These findings are confirmed experimentally, and techniques for measuring IR-drop are discussed. Electrochemically calculated corrosion rates corrected for both IR-drop and close approach between corrosion and metal equilibrium potentials are compared with those calculated from solution analysis.

The Effect of Uncompensated IR-Drop on Polarization Resistance Measurements

Abstract A theoretical analysis of the effect of uncompensated IR-drop on polarization resistance (Rp) measurements is given, which shows that it is not the absolute value of the solution plus surface film resistance (RΩ) which determines the error due to IR-drop, but the ratio (RΩ/Rp) An error is possible even in solutions of moderate to high conductivity, if corrosion rates are high. The experimentally determined polarization resistance (Rp) is the sum of the true polarization resistance (Rp) and the ohmic resistance (RΩ). If no corrections are made, polarization resistance values will be determined too high and consequently corrosion rates will be found too low. The effect of uncompensated IR-drop on measured polarization curves is shown. Experimental data with and without IR-drop compensation (“positive feedback”) confirm the theoretical considerations.

The design of potentiostats for use at very short times

The analysis of the transient response of potentiostat control circuits discussed previously is extended further. It is shown that the time constant of the damped oscillatory response cannot be reduced below about 10−6s with present techniques. New methods using hybrid open-loop, closed-loop techniques are described which eliminate the usual damped oscillation and enable response times of 10−7s to be achieved. The effect of iR drop on the response of the feedback system is analysed.It is shown that an analogue computer is particularly useful for demonstrating the response of potentiostats and for optimizing their design parameters.

Theory of Potentiostatic and Galvanostatic Charging of the Double Layer in Porous Electrodes

A theory of potentiostatic and galvanostatic transients which occur during charging of the double layer in porous electrodes is developed. Solutions are presented for transients due to charging processes in the interior of idealized, one‐dimensional porous and tubular electrodes of finite length. In addition, the effect of IR drop which occurs in solution between the tip of the reference electrode capillary and the front surface of the porous electrode is calculated. The effect of the external surface of the electrode on the charging transients is also assessed. Solutions for charging transients are presented for the case of potentiostatic and galvanostatic single pulse methods, for measurements made with square waves of current or voltage, and for triangular current or voltage sweeps. The effect of the conductivity of the metallic phase on the observable transients is considered. Graphical solutions of the theoretical equations are presented.

MIG熔接における自己制御特性の原因について

In this papea, we report the effect of IR drop in electrode and net arc energy on the so-called self requlating characteristics of MIG Welding. The radiant heat from molten pool of base metal is too small to explain the phenomena, as shown in the previous paper (Japanease W.J. Vol. 25 No. 2 1956).It must be noticed that, when we ajusted arc length shorter, the part of electrode from feeding contact point to, the arc becomes longer, in ordinary adjustment (Fig. 1-B). To separate the causes of the phenomena, we measured the melting speed when the arc length and wire length from the feeding contact point to the arc are changed respectively as shown Fig.1.According to our expeaiment, about 15% of the increase of the melting speed when the arc length is ajusted shorter, (which is the characteristics of the so-called self regulation), is due to the increase of the joule's heat above mentioned. See Table 1 & 2. Fig. 3 show the variation of the dorp along the wire of 100mm length when the same current is flowed. IR drop in Table 1 & 2 are estimated from those occillograms.The increase of electrode drop of arc when the arc is ajusted shorter, which is discussed in the previous paper, may explain to remainder.