Ecosystem Service Trade-offs Research Articles

Promoting an integrated planning for a sustainable upscale of renewable energy. A regional GIS-based comparison between ecosystem services tradeoff and policy constraints

The upscale of renewable energy production on a regional scale implies possible negative impacts on the environment, economies and societies. To ensure the sustainability of renewable energy production on a regional scale, the lens of ecosystem services can support sustainable energy assessments. This paper proposes a GIS-based methodology to spatially analyze the integration of renewable energy with other ecosystem services in order to identify trade-offs. The work focuses on solar farms and agricultural biomass from leftovers and considers five other ecosystem services that are fundamental to agricultural landscapes. The proposed assessment methodology relates land cover types to land suitability for renewable energy production, building on the literature on ecosystem service tradeoffs. The methodology was tested on a case study. The case study is the Veneto Region, whose renewable energy policy constraints are also analyzed. The assessment methodology shows that the land cover of fruit crops has a high level of tradeoff. The results of the case study highlight the discrepancy between the two separate analyses: the policy constraints analysis favours solar agriculture, while the tradeoff analysis favours energy production from agricultural biomass. Finally, the study paves the way for further investigation in the field of ES-RES and provides policy recommendations.

Assessing spatial heterogeneous response of ecosystem service relationships to land use intensification

Sustainable land use should balance the competing needs for development and protection. Land-use intensification facilitates material benefits from ecosystem, while potentially undermining the capacity of regulate the life-support environment and thus altering trade-offs between ecosystem services (ES). However, there remains a limited understanding of how land-use intensity (LUI) affects the spatial heterogeneity of ES relationships. To address this issue, we first propose an ES synergies (ESS) index, to clarify site-specific ES relationships, based on a combination of the production possibility frontier (PPF) and the technique for order preference by similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS). Then, we assess the nonlinear impacts of LUI on ESS, using the generalized additive models (GAMs). A case study was conducted in the Three Gorges region of central China, due to the dilemma between intensive development for poverty alleviation and water-soil retention for ecological protection. The results showed that an increase in LUI caused different rates of decline in ESS. Land-use intensification increased resource inputs and anthropogenic disturbances within entire land parcels, thus disrupting the synergistic relationships between several ES. Specifically, the synergies between water retention and carbon sequestration or biodiversity conservation decreased by more than three times as much as those between water retention and food production. Excessive LUI will reduce the provision of carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation compared to that of food production for the same level of water retention. However, moderate LUI can promote the synergistic provision of multiple services. For example, an LUI threshold of 2.5, which maximized the synergies of water-soil retention with other ES, showed the optimal balance of diverse ecological benefits at the highest level of intensity. Our study is expected to extend existing knowledge on the spatial heterogeneity of ES relationships by considering site-specific land use, and to mitigate the costs of land management due to ES trade-offs.

Assessing the suitability of under-represented tree species for multifunctional forest management—an example using economic return and biodiversity indicators

Abstract A shifting focus in forest management from timber production to resilience and multifunctionality in the face of changing disturbance regimes might entail altering the species composition of forests. Although the conifers Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and silver fir (Abies alba) currently comprise only a small proportion of Central European forests, the prospect of widespread planting of these species as a climate adaptation measure is currently widely debated by forest managers. To inform this debate, objective assessments of the multifunctional value of these species are required. Here, we introduce Pareto frontiers to objectively assess the value of tree species under competing objectives and considering an uncertain future. Using these frontiers, we explore trade-offs between financial performance and biodiversity aspects of German tree species portfolios with and without these currently rare conifers. We compare several potential biodiversity indicators (related to herbivores, saproxylic beetles, and deadwood decomposition rates) that can be derived from standard forest inventory data. Our results indicate that optimizing the biodiversity indicators generates gradual decreases in financial performance at first, but after an inflection point soil rent declines sharply. Portfolios excluding Douglas fir and silver fir achieved comparable biodiversity levels, but much weaker financial performance, than portfolios that included these conifers. Our novel approach of generating Pareto frontiers that integrate uncertainty can offer useful insights into ecosystem services trade-offs in contexts where risk is unequally distributed across management alternatives.

Constructing ecological security patterns based on ecosystem services trade-offs and ecological sensitivity: A case study of Shenzhen metropolitan area, China

Ecological security pattern (ESP) is an effective way to integrate landscape patterns and ecological processes from the perspective of ecological connectivity. Its scientific construction can promote the coordinated development of social system and ecosystem. However, the construction methods of ESP still need to be explored, most studies assume that different ecological processes do not interfere with each other, and then spatial overlay different types of ecosystem services to determine the ecological source. Metropolitan area is an important space carrier for the high-quality development of Chinese urban agglomeration. Taking Shenzhen metropolitan area as the target area, we identified ecological sources according to the ecosystem services trade-offs and ecological sensitivity assessment system and OWA algorithm, revised the basic resistance surface by using the night light data, and simulated and extracted ecological corridors by combining the minimum cumulative resistance (MCR) model and potential model. We identified 13 important ecological sources with a total area of 9938.23.23 km2. The spatial distribution of them was concentrated in Huizhou and Shanwei, as well as the junctions of mountain woodlands in Huizhou, Heyuan, and Shanwei. Notably, 66 ecological corridors were simulated, including 26 important and 40 general corridors. The ecological corridors generally exhibited a spider web radial distribution with substantial spatial heterogeneity and were densely distributed in the suburbs and northern hilly regions far from urban areas. Aggregated ecological elements were used to build a comprehensive ESP for the Shenzhen metropolitan area, which comprises 13 ecological sources, 26 important ecological corridors, 40 general ecological corridors, 4 security levels of resistance surface, and 24 ecological strategic nodes. This study comprehensively considered the ecosystem services interactions and the environmental sensitivity of ecological processes, provided an effective quantitative framework for constructing the ESP, and the results can provide decision-making reference for territorial ecological protection and restoration planning of Shenzhen metropolitan area.

Spatial heterogeneity and management challenges of ecosystem service trade-offs: a case study in Guangdong Province, China.

Ecosystem services (ESs) play a crucial connecting role between human well-being and natural ecosystems. Investigating ESs and their interrelationships can aid in the rational distribution of resources and benefits and inform planning decisions that align with the principles of ecological civilization. Nonetheless, our current understanding of these relationships remains limited; thus, further theoretical exploration is required. This study employs the InVEST model to assess the key ESs in Guangdong Province for 2000 and 2018 and applies the multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) method to identify the primary drivers of ES changes and capture trends in spatial variations. The results showed that (1) from 2000 to 2018, the total carbon storage (CS) and habitat quality (HQ) decreased while the water yield (WY) and net primary productivity (NPP) increased. These ESs also showed spatial differences, with higher values observed in the hilly and mountainous areas of the north compared with the coastal and plain areas of the south. (2) Although the spatial distribution of ES trade-off strength varied, the overall pattern remained consistent from 2000 to 2018. The pairwise trade-off strength of CS-WY and WY-HQ decreased significantly in the northern region of Guangdong due to low rainfall, while that of CS-HQ decreased significantly in the Pearl River delta as a result of urbanization. Cultivated and forested land displayed higher and lower levels of NPP and WY, respectively, with forested land exhibiting greater trade-off strength than the other land use types. (3) Evident spatial heterogeneity was observed in the properties and intensity of the correlations between driving factors and changes in ES trade-offs. Natural factors were the primary determinants of trade-offs among ESs. However, at a regional scale, the landscape index and socioeconomic factors tended to represent stronger drivers. Based on these findings, we suggest that ecological management should be adjusted based on the geographic scale. This study offers a valuable approach to understanding the relationship between ES trade-offs and their drivers in geographic space and serves as a reference for the sustainable provisioning of ESs both locally and globally.

Distinguishing the impact of tourism development on ecosystem service trade-offs in ecological functional zone

Tourism in ecological functional zones (EFZs) is rapidly becoming an increasing trend; however, its impact on ecosystem services remains poorly understood owing to the absence of a consistent quantification framework. This study uses the Taihang Mountains (THM), an EFZ in China, as an example to develop a framework for evaluating the direct and indirect impact pathways of scenic spots on the trade-offs between multiple ecosystem services by identifying the linkages between scenic spot development, socioeconomic change, land use transitions, and ecosystem services. The results show that the continued conversion of agricultural land, grassland, and forest to constructed land around scenic spots in 2000–2020 was accompanied by a decline in water yield (WY) and habitat quality (HQ); while food production (FP), carbon storage (CS), and soil retention (SR) increased. Land use and ecosystem service changes around scenic spots in the THM also exhibited significant spatial gradient effects. In particular, a 10-km buffer area was identified as a distinct “influence zone” where the ecosystem services trade-offs and land use changes were the most pronounced. In 2010, scenic spot revenue was the dominant factor that increased the trade-offs between SR with FP and CS via direct pathways. However, in 2020, the dominant factor was scenic spot level, which shifted the impact toward the relationship between CS and WY and HQ by intensifying the trade-offs to facilitating synergies. This was accomplished in an indirect manner, such as the facilitation of local population growth, industrial restructuring, and infrastructure development. This study reveals the varying effects of scenic spot development via different pathways, thereby providing useful insights for global EFZs to more precisely design policies that can adequately balance human activities with ecosystem services.

Synergies and Trade-Offs among Different Ecosystem Services through the Analyses of Spatio-Temporal Changes in Beijing, China

Increasing global urbanization has not only resulted in economic development but it has also caused a number of ecological issues, such as haze, global warming, and storm surges, which can end up hindering the development of human society in the long term. One method of maintaining the long-term growth of human ecosystems is by considering ecosystem services (ES) when making decisions over land use. This study provides information to aid with decision making in the maintenance of Beijing’s ES provision in the long term. Firstly, three key ES, namely, carbon storage (CS), habitat quality (HQ), and water yield (WY), were evaluated by the InVEST model. Then, the spatial patterns of synergies and trade-offs among three ES at the city and grid scales were explored through the correlation coefficients analysis and geographically weighted regression (GWR). Finally, the strength of trade-offs among ES was calculated based on root mean squared error (RMSE), and the potential ecological risk areas are recognized. We discovered that (1) the total carbon storage decreases from 3.74 million tons in 2000 to 3.66 million tons in 2020, and HQ has the same trend, with its average value decreasing from 0.72 to 0.67; in contrast, water yield is more stable, increasing slightly from 8.22 × 1010 m3 in 2000 to 8.23 × 1010 m3 in 2020. (2) The synergies and trade-offs of ES are spatially heterogeneous. Among them, the correlation coefficients at the city-level indicated synergistic relationships among the three ES, but CS-WY and WY-HQ always have trade-off relationships at the grid level, where 37.88% of WY-HQ and 14.59% of CS-WY were trade-offs in 2020. (3) At the urban-rural interface, the trade-offs among ES are stronger than those in other regions. In rural-urban areas, the RMSE in CS-HQ, CS-WY and WY-HQ always had high values (>0.5), accounting for 16.72%, 9.33%, and 26.94% of the entire area, respectively; these areas are identified as potential ecological risk areas, which will be the focus area for future ES regulation. These findings provide opportunities for clear trade-offs among ES and promote positive synergies. In addition, land-use management may use the results to guide ecosystem service use, identify critical areas, and ensure regional sustainability in urban development.

Ecosystem Services at the Farm Level-Overview, Synergies, Trade-Offs, and Stakeholder Analysis.

The current geological epoch is characterized by anthropogenic activity that greatly impacts on natural ecosystems and their integrity. The complex networks of ecosystem services (ESs) are often ignored because the provision of natural resources, such as food and industrial crops, is mistakenly viewed as an independent process separate from ecosystems and ignoring the impacts on ecosystems. Recently, research has intensified on how to evaluate and manage ES to minimize environmental impacts, but it remains unclear how to balance anthropogenic activity and ecosystem integrity. This paper reviews the main ESs at farm level including provisioning, regulating, habitat, and cultural services. For these ESs, synergies are outlined and evaluated along with the respective practices (e.g., cover- and intercropping) and ES suppliers (e.g., pollinators and biocontrol agents). Further, several farm-level ES trade-offs are discussed along with a proposal for their evaluation. Finally, a framework for stakeholder approaches specific to farm-level ES is put forward, along with an outlook on how existing precision agriculture technologies can be adapted for improved assessment of ES bundles. This is believed to provide a useful framework for both decision makers and stakeholders to facilitate the development of more sustainable and resilient farming systems.

Multiscale Analysis of the Effects of Landscape Pattern on the Trade-Offs and Synergies of Ecosystem Services in Southern Zhejiang Province, China

Identifying the trade-offs and synergies (TOSs) of ecosystem services (ESs) and their responses to landscape patterns at various scales, especially in mountainous areas, could benefit the strategies of ES management and landscape optimization. In this study, the southern Zhejiang Province, a hilly region in eastern China, was chosen as the study area. Five ESs, including food production (FP), carbon sequestration (CS), flood mitigation (FM), water conservation (WC), and soil retention (SR) in 2020 were quantified. The TOSs of these ESs were identified at four spatial scales (i.e., grid, watershed, town, and county scales) through Pearson correlation analysis and the spatial overlay method. The effects of landscape patterns on the TOSs of ESs were analyzed by applying a logistic regression model. Results showed that FP and other ESs were trade-offs, while the other ES pairs were synergies. Spatial overlay results showed that weak synergies increased significantly, while strong synergies decreased significantly with the increase of the scale. The direction of the influence of landscape pattern on TOSs did not change, but the magnitudes of the impacts were scale-dependent. Landscape composition (i.e., cropland%, forest%, construction land%) had more significant effects on the trade-offs of ESs than spatial configuration (i.e., LSI, PD, COHE, and SHDI). The magnitudes of impact of landscape composition were strengthened at larger scales, while the effects of landscape configuration on the TOSs of ESs became complex as the scale changed. The results of this study could contribute to understanding how landscape patterns affect TOSs across scales, which will promote the hierarchical governance of ESs in mountainous areas.

A conceptual framework for understanding ecosystem trade-offs and synergies, in communal rangeland systems

Communal rangelands are a global resource of significant benefit to society through the provision of critical ecosystem goods and services such as carbon sequestration, water and livestock forage. The relative importance of the ecosystem goods and services provided by communal rangelands is driven by the social and environmental priorities of a range of different stakeholders at the local, regional and national level. Understanding the potential ecosystem service trade-offs (and synergies) is vital for making informed and inclusive decisions as part of the process of stakeholder engagement, both in goal setting as well as evaluating the appropriateness of outcomes in rangelands. However, application of trade-offs approaches to communal rangelands, has frequently been limited by a lack of adequate stakeholder engagement to help define important factors such as the diverse objectives of end users and the broader institutional and policy environments that frame them. To help address this, we propose a framework that conceptualises the links between different actors and trade-offs at three key levels, using communal rangelands in South Africa as a case study. Firstly, we explore environment trade-offs between key ecosystem services, largely determined through public sector engagement in the formulation of environmental policy. Secondly, we examine the potential for environmental policies to create community-environment trade-offs between the needs of local communities and those of society more broadly. Thirdly, we consider community trade-offs reflecting the many different social and economic priorities of people living in communal systems. We suggest that the framework will find greatest application in the initial process of determining potential ecosystem service trade-offs and associated land use scenarios with key stakeholders, and then subsequently in connecting the trade-offs back to these stakeholders, following analysis, as part of a ‘discussion support’ process. We also discuss the broader applicability of this approach to rangelands systems outside of South Africa.

Exploring the impact of integrated spatial function zones on land use dynamics and ecosystem services tradeoffs based on a future land use simulation (FLUS) model

Spatial function zones (SFZs) provide an effective means to determine the function of spatial zone and to optimize land use layout. China has initiated a series of spatial planning policies to delineate SFZs, which influence not only land use configuration but also the structure and function of ecosystems as well as the services ecosystem provides. Taking Wuhan city, China as an example, this study explored the impact of integrated spatial function zones (ISFZs) on four selected ecosystem services (i.e., crop production, CP; water yield, WY; carbon storage, CS; and erosion prevention, EP) and their synergies and tradeoffs. Specifically, by incorporating different spatial functional zones into the land use simulation model, we simulated land use under both business as usual (BAU) and integrated spatial function zones (ISFZs) scenarios. Then, we assessed and compared the ESs and their correlations under the two scenarios. The results showed that compared to the BAU scenario, in the ISFZs scenario, quantities of farmland and forests would be increased by 410.99 km2 and 28.49 km2, while construction land would be decreased by 342.45 km2; average CP, CS and EP would be improved by 0.05, 2.23 t/ha, and 7.3 t/ha, while average WY would be reduced by 6.4 mm; synergies between most pairs of ESs would be slightly promoted. It is concluded that ISFZs are beneficial to sustainable improvement and balanced development of multiple ESs. This study provides theoretical and technical references for the formulation of spatial regulation policy and ecosystem-based management.

Trade-offs of multiple urban ecosystem services based on land-use scenarios in the Tumen River cross-border area

Land use change affected by rapid urbanization, economic development and political influences. As a crucial factor to ecosystem services (ESs), irrational land use is likely to bring about loss of some ecosystem services (ESs). In the meanwhile, the trade-offs occur among the ESs are also changing. This research aims to coordinate the relationship of ESs for land use planning under different scenarios in Tumen River Region. The essay has been organized in the following way. Initially, we analyzed the impact on 6 ESs in the context of the local land use change. Furthermore, we explored their trade-offs among the ESs and seek to provide theoretical support to planning and management in the Tumen River Region. Here, we used data from 1996 to 2006 and 2006–2016 to examine how the ecosystem services are affected by trade-offs in three different scenarios: Baseline Development (BD), Fast Development (FD), and Harmonious Development (HD) by using CASA and USLE models. Additionally, with the help of integrated valuation of ecosystem services and trade-offs (InVEST) model, we assessed 6 ecosystem services not only including Meat production (MP), Net primary production (NPP), Habitat quality (HQ), but Crop production (CP), Soil conservation (SC), Water retention (WR) as well during 1996–2016. Firstly, we demonstrated the numerous trade-offs and/or synergistic interactions between ESs. Then we assessed these ESs at the regional scale based on the 3 scenarios. Finally, we explored the optimal scenario. Results show that (1) it was significant that the dramatic land use change in the study area from 1996 to 2016, especially in cultivated land and forested land;(2) the total ESV in the study area initially decreased and then increased, and showed a gradual improvement trend during 1996–2016;(3) multiple ESs in addition to 2 ESs, containing Habitat Quality (HQ) and Soil Conservation (SC), there are also Water Retention (WR) and Net Primary Productivity (NPP) during 1996–2016 showed positive correlations. However, Crop and Meat Production vs Soil Retention was not significantly correlated in the study period;(4) among all scenario simulations, ESs showed the most improvement in the HD scenario, and following closely behind are the BD scenario and the FD scenario. The BD scenario had fewer trade-offs compared with against 2016, and the HD and FD scenarios had more;(5) relative to the catchment area, the HD scenario is the optimal situation. Our findings will provide some references for the construction of land use management and ecological civilization in cross-border area.

Spatial and temporal effect and driving factors of ecosystem service trade-off in the Qingjiang River Basin, China.

Identifying the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics of trade-offs/synergies relationships of ecosystem service in watersheds and their influencing factors is essential for ecosystem management and regulation. It is of great significance for the efficient allocation of environmental resources and the rational formulation of ecological and environmental policies. We used correlation analysis and root mean square deviation to analyze the trade-offs/synergies relationships among grain provision, net primary productivity (NPP), soil conservation, and water yield service in the Qingjiang River Basin from 2000 to 2020. Then, we analyzed the critical factors affecting the trade-offs of ecosystem services by using the geographical detector. The results showed that grain provision service in the Qingjiang River Basin presented a decreasing trend from 2000 to 2020, and that NPP, soil conservation, as well as water yield service showed an increasing trend. There was a decreasing trend in the degree of trade-offs between grain provision and soil conservation services, NPP and water yield service, and an increasing trend in the intensity of trade-offs between other services. Grain provision and NPP, soil conservation and water yield showed trade-off in the northeast and synergy in the southwest. There was a synergistic relationship between NPP with soil conservation and water yield in the central part and a trade-off relationship in the surrounding area. Soil conservation and water yield showed a high degree of synergy. Land use and normalized difference of vegetation index were the dominant factors in the intensity of trade-offs between grain provision and other ecosystem services. Precipitation, temperature, and elevation were the dominant factors in the intensity of trade-offs between water yield service and other ecosystem services. The intensity of ecosystem service trade-offs was not only affected by a single factor. In contrast, the interaction between the two services or the common factors behind the two services was the determining factor. Our results could provide a reference for developing ecological restoration planning strategies in the national land space.

Integrating land use management with trade-offs between ecosystem services: A framework and application

The trade-offs of ecosystem services (ES) are at the frontier of geographical and ecological studies. However, previous studies have focused on either supply-supply trade-off or supply–demand trade-off, while the integrated research of three trade-off types for ES (i.e. supply-supply trade-off, demand-demand trade-off, and supply–demand trade-off) needs to be further studied. This study integrated three trade-off types for ES to establish an analytical framework. This framework was then applied to a sub-watershed of the Yellow River in China (i.e., the Fenghe River watershed). Based on a quantitative assessment of both the supply and demand of ES, this study quantifies and displays these three trade-off types for ES in this sub-watershed. From the supply perspective, obvious trade-offs exist between food provision as well as water yield, carbon sequestration, and soil retention. From the demand perspective, there are weak conflicts between environmental experts and other stakeholders, and obvious trade-offs exist between soil retention as well as food provision, water yield, carbon sequestration, and eco-recreation. From the supply–demand match perspective, a deficit for food provision, water yield, and carbon sequestration exists in the northern urban areas, while a surplus exists in the southern areas. No deficit was found for soil retention and eco-recreation at the sub-watershed scale. Based on the spatial characteristics of these three trade-off types for ES, the Fenghe River watershed could be divided into 10 land use management zones. Finally, the corresponding measures and polices are proposed to optimize the matching of ES supply–demand. This study contributes to the optimization of the sustainability of ES from a novel perspective, and provides a scientific basis for land use management.

Maximizing blue carbon stocks through saltmarsh restoration

Political discourse around coastal wetland restoration and blue carbon management strategies has increased in the past decade, yet carbon storage has neither been a reason for restoration, nor a criterion to measure the success of current saltmarsh restoration schemes in the UK. To maximise climate change mitigation through saltmarsh restoration, knowledge on the key drivers of carbon stock variability is required. We use restored saltmarshes of similar age, paired with adjacent natural marshes as references, to identify drivers of carbon stocks following managed realignment within an estuary in southeastern England. From surficial soil cores (top 30 cm), we measured carbon stock alongside environmental characteristics. Carbon stock between natural and restored sites were similar after ~ 30 years when restored sites were above mean high water neap (MHWN) tidal levels. Elevated marsh platforms likely provide suitable conditions for the development of mature plant communities associated with greater capture and production of organic carbon. The restored site at Tollesbury (Essex, UK) had a 2-fold lower carbon stock than other restored sites in the estuary. We attribute this to the site’s low position in the tidal frame, below MHWN tidal levels, coupled with low sediment supply and the dominance of pioneer plant communities. As blue carbon is anticipated to become an important facet of saltmarsh restoration, we recommend that sites above MHWN tidal levels are selected for managed realignment or that preference is given to coastlines with a high sediment supply that may rapidly elevate realignment sites above MHWN. Alternatively, elevation could be artificially raised prior to realignment. Restoration schemes aiming to maximise climate change mitigation should also encourage the establishment of key plant species (e.g., Atriplex portulacoides in our study) to enhance carbon stocks. However, the overall goal of restoration ought to be carefully considered as trade-offs in ecosystem services may ensue if restoration for climate change mitigation alone is pursued.

Handling ecosystem service trade-offs: the importance of the spatial scale at which no-loss constraints are posed

Handling ecosystem service trade-offs: the importance of the spatial scale at which no-loss constraints are posed

Ecosystem services research: From golden era to next crossing

Ecosystem services has been widely explored in various theoretical or practical studies since its emergence more than 20 years ago. The two big issues in the past golden era of ecosystem services research were: ecosystem services valuing and ecosystem services trade-offs. We analyzed advantages of ecosystem services in promoting the attention that government and the public pay to the natural capital and the management of ecosystem services, together with summarizing the shortcomings. It was found that ecosystem services valuing made the public aware of the importance of natural capital from an economic perspective, while ecosystem services trade-offs highlighted the relationship between various ecosystem services from an ecological perspective, which could be better applied to ecosystem services-based ecosystem management. With an increasing number of papers focusing on ecosystem services flows, it is believed that ecosystem services flows integrating ecology, economy, sociology and geography disciplines will become a new key direction after ecosystem services valuing and trade-offs. To further promote the study of ecosystem services flows that link human and nature within geographical context, we need to focus on the value of ecosystem services flows with payment and benefit accounting, the relationship of ecosystem services flows by trade-off and synergy analysis, and the direction of ecosystem services flows by spatial and temporal assessment. In addition, a more efficient and widely recognized method is also essential for the development of quantifying ecosystem services flow. This study contributes to understanding the development stage of ecosystem services research and highlights the importance of ecosystem services flow research.

Participatory mapping of ecosystem services across a gradient of agricultural intensification in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT Agrarian change affects the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ES) by reducing the extent of natural ecosystems. Agricultural intensification can lead to changes in land covers and livelihood opportunities and it remains unclear how such changes align or misalign with the desires of local communities. Using participatry mapping, we assessed ES uses and desires of Indigenous people and local communities provided by different land cover types along a gradient of agricultural intensification (forest subsistence, agroforestry mosaic, and monoculture and market-dependence) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. We found that mapped ES use diversity was highest in the forest-dependent zone and lowest near monoculture agricultural systems. The expressed ES uses and desires varied greatly among land cover types amidst loss of old-growth forest and greater reliance on secondary forest and shrub land. The spatial analysis showed that high priority areas of ES use was related to access in the landscape, demonstrating the importance of attending to place-based social values in ES assessments. From this study, we call for a people-centric spatial modelling approach to address the divergence of social and cultural ES values associated with land covers under different intensification contexts. Participatory mapping clarifies the ES desires of local communities, which state policy often fails to address. We recommend a place specific management strategy to reduce ES trade-offs of specific land use practices, which are currently apparent with agrarian change in Indonesia and relevant for other tropical developing countries.

Assessing Temporal Trade-Offs of Ecosystem Services by Production Possibility Frontiers

Ecosystems provide multiple valuable services that play an essential role in preventing meteorological risks, combating sandy land expansion, and ensuring sustainable development in the West Liao River Basin. The trade-off among ecosystem services (ES) is inevitable because of biophysical constraints and societal preferences. The production possibility frontier (PPF) is increasingly deemed an appropriate tool for representing trade-off relationships among ES. In this study, we developed a feasible approach for estimating PPF, which includes three steps. First, the annual water yield model, the sediment delivery ratio model, the carbon storage and sequestration model, and the habitat quality model of InVEST models were used to quantify temporal changes in four key ES, including water retention, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and habitat improvement, in five-year periods from 1990 to 2020. Second, after the standardization of ES quantities, the functional forms of PPF curves for six pairs of ES trade-offs were derived by adopting a two-term exponential function of the curve fitting tool in MATLAB. Third, the trade-off intensity for each ES pair was defined and calculated based on the distance from the mean point to the PPF curve. Compared to the existing approaches, our approach has the advantage of fitting functional forms of PPF curves, handling both positive and negative values of ES, and calculating trade-off intensities. This study has three implications. First, showing the trade-offs between ES by PPF is helpful for providing knowledge on the existence of turning points and a complex relationship between certain ES pairs, thus avoiding unintended and large-scale shifts in the provision of ES. Second, PPF curves are a useful tool for visualizing the nature of ES relationships and the changes in trade-off intensity, thus supporting decision-makers to identify optimal solutions and make land use planning that can increase the overall efficiency over multiple ES. Third, socioeconomic components should be integrated into the assessment of ES trade-offs in order to understand the influences of societal choices on and examine stakeholders’ preferences regarding efficient ES combinations.

From GI, UGI to UAGI: Ecosystem service types and indicators of green infrastructure in response to ecological risks and human needs in global metropolitan areas

Green infrastructure (GI), providing multiple ecosystem services (ESs), is considered a key way to address ecological risks and human needs faced by global metropolitan areas. However, there is no review of GI's response to multiscale risks and needs by providing ESs. To address this research gap, we used systematic review method by searching articles constructing GI based on ES evaluation and mapping from 2005 to 2021 in Scopus and Web of Science databases, and eventually selected 101 articles. We observed three research scales and GI construction forms: GI and its components, urban GI (UGI), and urban agglomeration GI (UAGI). We found that: 1) flood disasters and human demand for outdoor recreational spaces were dominant risks and needs co-faced by metropolitan areas on three scales. 2) The proportion of GI components in UGI and UAGI providing special ES for specific risk and need should be raised to avoid disservices or ES trade-offs. 3) More attention should be given to the overall ES capacity in both quantity and efficiency of UGI and UAGI networks. Finally, UAGI with superiority in function, layout, and ability to address risks and needs was proposed as a prioritized planning approach to adapt to development of metropolitan areas.