Ecosystem Disservices Research Articles

Governance, Nature’s Contributions to People, and Investing in Conservation Influence the Valuation of Urban Green Areas

There is little information concerning how people in the Global South perceive the benefits and costs associated with urban green areas. There is even less information on how governance influences the way people value these highly complex socio-ecological systems. We used semi-structured surveys, statistical analyses, and econometrics to explore the perceptions of users regarding governance and the benefits and costs, or Ecosystem Services (ES) and Ecosystem Disservices (ED), provided by Neotropical green areas and their willingness to invest, or not, for their conservation. The study area was the El Salitre sub-watershed in Bogota, Colombia, and 10 different sites representative of its wetlands, parks, green areas, and socioeconomic contexts. Using a context-specific approach and methods, we identified the most important benefits and costs of green areas and the influence of governance on how people valued these. Our modelling shows that air quality and biodiversity were highly important benefits, while water regulation was the least important; despite the sub-watershed’s acute problems with stormwater runoff. In terms of costs, the feeling of insecurity due to crime was related to poor levels of maintenance and infrastructure in the studied green areas. Perceived transparency, corruption, and performance of government institutions influenced people’s Unwillingness to Invest (UTI) in green space conservation. Results show that socioeconomic backgrounds, government performance, and environmental education will play a role in the value or importance people place on the benefits, costs, and UTI in conservation efforts in urban green areas. Similarly, care is warranted when directly applying frameworks and typologies developed in high income countries (i.e., ES) to the unique realities of cities in the Global South. Accordingly, alternative frameworks such as Nature’s Contributions to People is promising.

Local Knowledge about Ecosystem Services Provided by Trees in Coffee Agroforestry Practices in Northwest Vietnam

In recent decades in northwest Vietnam, Arabica coffee has been grown on sloping land in intensive, full sun monocultures that are not sustainable in the long term and have negative environmental impacts. There is an urgent need to reverse this negative trend by promoting good agricultural practices, including agroforestry, to prevent further deforestation and soil erosion on slopes. A survey of 124 farmers from three indigenous groups was conducted in northwest Vietnam to document coffee agroforestry practices and the ecosystem services associated with different tree species used in them. Trees were ranked according to the main ecosystem services and disservices considered to be locally relevant by rural communities. Our results show that tree species richness in agroforestry plots was much higher for coffee compared to non-coffee plots, including those with annual crops and tree plantations. Most farmers were aware of the benefits of trees for soil improvement, shelter (from wind and frost), and the provision of shade and mulch. In contrast, farmers had limited knowledge of the impact of trees on coffee quality and other interactions amongst trees and coffee. Farmers ranked the leguminous tree species Leucaena leucocephala as the best for incorporating in coffee plots because of the services it provides to coffee. Nonetheless, the farmers’ selection of tree species to combine with coffee was highly influenced by economic benefits provided, especially by intercropped fruit trees, which was influenced by market access, determined by the proximity of farms to a main road. The findings from this research will help local extension institutions and farmers select appropriate tree species that suit the local context and that match household needs and constraints, thereby facilitating the transition to a more sustainable and climate-smart coffee production practice.

Diversity and local perception of lepidopterans in secondary tropical dry forests: Implications for management

Butterflies are one of insect groups cherished by humans because of their spectacular colors and shapes. However, the ecosystem services and/or disservices they provide are less clear-cut, since they can be both important pollinators as adults and agricultural pests as larvae. In this study, we evaluated local perceptions about lepidopterans in “Los Ranchitos,” Jalisco, Mexico and estimated butterfly diversity in nearby secondary forests. Our aim was to understand whether common knowledge values the ecosystem services butterflies provide and whether local perception correlates with secondary forest butterfly diversity and management. To estimate lepidopteran diversity, we used direct sampling with live traps and direct observation. To understand local perceptions about the role of lepidopterans for ecosystems and management of their lands, we conducted semi-structured interviews and workshops with local Ejidatarios (members of the local community and participants in a Mexican collective land ownership structure). We found a high diversity of lepidopterans (40 species) at the secondary forests throughout the year. Most Ejidatarios have diverse management strategies involving cattle ranching and agriculture. Local knowledge recognized their presence in their fields particularly in secondary forests. However, we detected little awareness of the link between lepidopteran larvae (herbivores) and adults (pollinators), and their role in wild plant pollination. Many Ejidatarios were interested in deepening their knowledge of the ecosystem services that lepidopterans provide in the region. Therefore, researchers should strengthen their communication skills and share the information about the ecosystem services biodiversity provides and how secondary forests hold an important amount of biodiversity. In order to improve secondary forest management there is a need to incorporate ecological knowledge into localś perceptions.

Emergy synthesis for aquaculture: A review on its constraints and potentials

AbstractThe search for healthier protein sources and the growing demand for food by an increasing world population require aquaculture systems to not only be economically and technologically viable, but also sustainable. Among other methods, emergy synthesis is a powerful tool to assess the sustainability of production systems in a biophysical perspective. However, applications of emergy synthesis on aquaculture systems are seldomly found in the scientific literature. This work provides a literature review on emergy synthesis applied to aquaculture systems and discusses its constraints and potentials. The sixteen papers published between 2000‐2020 support the adoption of polycultures more than monocultures and highlight the importance of feed (4–70%) in the total emergy required by aquaculture systems, which require efforts for natural food. Methodological aspects of emergy synthesis applied in aquaculture systems that deserve attention by developers and analysts to avoid mistakes and erroneous conclusions were identified and discussed, and we propose some ways to solve them. These aspects are mainly related to inaccurate unit emergy values for water and feed, dubious procedures in quantifying and classifying water as renewable or non‐renewable resources, and the need to recognize the importance in accounting for ecosystem services and disservices. After overcoming these methodological inconsistencies, we foresee that emergy synthesis has potential political implications in supporting most sustainable aquaculture systems through economic (tax reduction and loans with reduced interests) and political (green labels) incentives. All these policies are important to achieve the ultimate goals of the United Nations’ Agenda 2030.

Seasonal and spatial occurrence of zoonotic Salmonella serotypes in griffon vultures at farmland environments: Implications in pathogen pollution and ecosystem services and disservices

Livestock production is a large source of microbial, pharmaceutical, and antimicrobial pollution worldwide. Vultures are one group of birds with particularly high exposure to food-borne pathogens due to frequent consumption of infected livestock carcasses. The potential origin and spatial-temporal shedding patterns of livestock-adapted Salmonella serotypes of zoonotic importance were evaluated in adult and nestling Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). We specifically assessed the exposure source and subsequent elimination of Salmonella-infected carcasses (ecosystem services) or transmission back to livestock (ecosystem disservices) by vultures, thus contributing respectively to disease mitigation or amplification in natural and farmed environments. The results show a seasonal high occurrence and turnover of a high variety of serotypes, especially swine-adapted ones isolated at high frequency. This suggests that vultures can be reservoirs and long-distance carriers of faecal Salmonella shed in supplementary feeding stations and breeding colonies. Contrary to their conservation purposes, feeding stations can act as Salmonella hotspots and reservoirs. However, a role for vultures in the transmission back to food-producing animals seems impossible because they do not come into contact at indoor farms, while transmission to free-ranging ruminants was not supported by the presence of ruminant-adapted serotypes in the vultures. Therefore, vultures do not promote disservices associated with the re-infection of livestock with Salmonella, but can provide quantitatively important ecosystem services by removing carrion contaminated with these and other zoonotic pathogens potentially affecting their health. Sanitary vigilance of the farms authorised to provide food for avian scavengers should avoid the disposal of swine and poultry carcasses with Salmonella and the antibiotics used to treat it. Extensive free-ranging livestock and their carcasses exploited in the countryside should be a priority for the conservation of vultures and their ecological function as cleaners and disease mitigators.

Use of structural equation modeling to explore influences on perceptions of ecosystem services and disservices attributed to birds in Singapore

Birds are among the most visible and charismatic forms of urban biodiversity. Urban birds provide important ecosystem services but are also associated with some disservices. How urban residents perceive these services and disservices, and the factors shaping these perceptions, are not well understood. We studied how awareness of birds in the landscape, knowledge of bird species, and nature relatedness influence these perceptions. For this purpose, we conducted a questionnaire survey of 1000 Singapore residents. We used structural equation modeling to explore relationships between socio-demographics and past nature-related experiences on bird awareness, bird knowledge and nature relatedness, and to understand how these personal factors affect perceptions of ecosystem services and disservices. Despite their mainly low awareness and knowledge of birds, respondents were generally positive in their responses and expressed few concerns regarding disservices. Perceptions of regulation and maintenance services were positively related to bird knowledge. Perceptions of cultural services were positively influenced by bird awareness and nature relatedness, and stronger nature relatedness was important for decreasing associations with bird disservices. Successful implementation of ecosystem services management should firstly understand citizens’ perceptions, and include efforts to increase bird knowledge and awareness through activities such as public education and outreach campaigns.

Targeted policy proposals for managing spontaneous forest expansion in the Mediterranean

Abstract Recent forest expansion in Euro‐Mediterranean countries predominantly results from secondary succession in abandoned farmland, rather than from artificial afforestation. This major forest transition involves the delivery of both ecosystem services and disservices, which must be balanced through new land‐use planning and policy approaches. Ecosystem services arising from this expansion of forests include increased carbon sequestration, water infiltration, provision of forest products, soil retention and forest coalescence. Nevertheless, ecosystem disservices such as reductions in water yield, landscape homogenisation, increased wildfire risk and/or the loss of high nature value managed habitats caution against generalisation of the benefits of such expansion. Most EU funds related to forests are being allocated to conservation, restoration, or fire prevention and extinction efforts, whereas sustainable forest management and the maintenance of multifunctional agro‐silvo‐pastoral mosaics are hampered by the lack of financial incentives and by environmental regulations. Policy implications. We advocate for more‐targeted policies based on landscape planning that favours multifunctionality while reducing environmental and economic uncertainties and maximising the ecosystem service/disservice ratio. The following recommendations follow from this approach: (a) a climate‐smart policy favouring fire‐resistant landscapes and enhancing value chains that stimulate active forest management; (b) the adoption of a territorial perspective, beyond forest and farm‐based measures and payments, that relies on management actions and minimises socio‐ecological tensions; (c) refocusing CAP Pillar II grants from afforestation and forest protection measures to sustainable forest management; (d) transforming the CAP direct payments to support multifunctional farming systems (e.g. agroforestry); (e) a more balanced inclusion of different land uses in the Natura 2000 network and intensification of the support for High Nature Value farming in less‐favoured areas.

Factors determining on-site perception of ecosystem services and disservices from street trees in a densely urbanized area

Recent studies have increasingly explored peoples’ perceptions of urban greenspaces to incorporate their consensus and preference into a more feasible design and planning of urban ecosystems. However, little is known about the relative importance of several factors determining perceptions of urban street trees, which is fundamental to unveiling the full picture of perception. Here, we examined the influences of possible factors ranging from social to environmental ones on people’s on-site perception of street trees in the Minatomirai-21 district in the Tokyo-Yokohama region. Using a structured questionnaire, we conducted a survey to enquire about on-site perceptions of the ecosystem services and disservices potentially provided by street trees. Results suggested that attributes of urban building environments (street width and building height) and street trees (tree density and height, as well as dominant planted species) had little effect on the on-site perceptions of street trees. Instead, the results generally showed that on-site perceptions differed according to age, gender, and season. Relatively high perceptions of positive aspects of street trees, regardless of their attributes across sites, probably reflected people's satisfaction with street trees and streetscapes in the Minatomirai-21 district. Moreover, in the context of people's perception, our results suggested that the negative effects of street trees on the quality of life are limited. We argue that ensuring a certain number of street trees, even in a densely urbanized area, should be essential to benefit the quality of life among various stakeholders such as visitors, office workers, and residents.

Ecosystem disservices matter when valuing ecosystem benefits from small-scale arable agriculture

The contribution of ecosystem services to smallholder agriculture is widely recognised. However, they are seldom analysed in tandem with the ecosystem disservices, such as crop weeds and pests, which the same systems produce. We do so by quantifying the provisioning ecosystem services and disservices in smallholder arable agricultural systems in three rural villages in southeastern South Africa. Using a mixed methods approach we consider the relative benefits from ecosystem services after the effects of disservices, and the management and strategies that households adopt to minimise disservices. The role of ecosystem services and disservices was expressed in economic terms to provide a common framework to assess the relative magnitude of their contribution or loss. Although crop cultivation made measurable contributions to households, disservices were prevalent and undermined livelihoods to varying degrees. Despite active management, disservices could result in complete loss of the yield. The dual character of services and disservices was observed with some ‘weeds’ considered both a service, as food, and a disservice in competing with planted crops. We emphasise the need to recognise both the positive and negative contributions of ecosystems when analysing rural livelihoods to fully grasp how rural people conceive and engage with nature in small-scale agroecological systems.

The State of the World's Insects

This article reviews the present state of insects, describing their taxonomic position, cost, and value as well as the threats to their well-being. Insects are an important source of both ecosystem services and ecosystem disservices. Recent studies have indicated a worrying decline in insect species, especially in flying insects in the northern temperate region, and this has spawned much media attention. Some decline has occurred, it is clear, due to agricultural intensification, urbanization, overuse of pesticides, and global climate change. A decline would seriously affect the ecosystem services that insects provide. However, there is too little data to warrant the belief that all insects are declining everywhere. There is a pressing need for more basic research on insect diversity in the context of a changing world.

Beyond 'trees are good': Disservices, management costs, and tradeoffs in urban forestry.

The provision of ecosystem services is a prominent rationale for urban greening, and there is a prevailing mantra that 'trees are good'. However, understanding how urban trees contribute to sustainability must also consider disservices. In this perspective article, we discuss recent research on ecosystem disservices of urban trees, including infrastructure conflicts, health and safety impacts, aesthetic issues, and environmentally detrimental consequences, as well as management costs related to ecological disturbances and risk management. We also discuss tradeoffs regarding species selection and local conservation concerns, as well as the central role of human perception in the interpretation of ecosystem services and disservices, particularly the uncritical assertion that 'everybody loves trees'. Urban forestry decision-making that fails to account for disservices can have unintended negative consequences for communities. Further research is needed regarding life cycle assessments, stakeholder decision-making, return-on-investment, and framings of services and disservices in urban forestry.

Ecosystem services provided by beavers Castor spp.

Abstract We aimed to recognise beaver‐produced ecosystem services and quantify their theoretical value for the entire Northern Hemisphere. Activity of the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber and the North American beaver Castor canadensis in the landscape provides ecosystem services and disservices. Services produced by beaver activity include water purification, moderation of extreme events, habitat and biodiversity provision, nutrient cycling, greenhouse gas sequestration, recreational hunting and fishing, water supply, and non‐consumptive recreation. Beaver‐produced services have not been compiled, analysed, or quantified previously. Each service we evaluated is worth millions to hundreds of millions of US dollars (USD) annually. Habitat and biodiversity provision (133 million USD), along with greenhouse gas sequestration (75 million USD), are particularly valuable services in absolute terms, while non‐consumptive recreation (167 USD ha−1) and habitat and biodiversity provision (133 USD ha−1) have the largest annual per‐hectare values. Our results can be used to broaden decision‐making and management perspectives, as we offer value estimates to wildlife managers and municipality planners for assessing local site‐specific beaver wetland values and the opportunities for their realisation. Implementing Payments for Ecosystem Services schemes offer a concrete way for societies to benefit from beaver‐produced services while concurrently compensating beaver‐produced losses accrued to landowners. Building such schemes offer long‐term realisation of ecosystem services and damage mitigation. This would lead to increased societal well‐being and increased conservation interest and efforts.

Municipal regulation of residential landscapes across US cities: Patterns and implications for landscape sustainability

Local regulations on residential landscapes (yards and gardens) can facilitate or constrain ecosystem services and disservices in cities. To our knowledge, no studies have undertaken a comprehensive look at how municipalities regulate residential landscapes to achieve particular goals and to control management practices. Across six U.S. cities, we analyzed 156 municipal ordinances to examine regional patterns in local landscape regulations and their implications for sustainability. Specifically, we conducted content analysis to capture regulations aimed at: 1) goals pertaining to conservation and environmental management, aesthetics and nuisance avoidance, and health and wellbeing, and 2) management actions including vegetation maintenance, water and waste management, food production, and chemical inputs. Our results reveal significant variation in local and regional regulations. While regulatory goals stress stormwater management and nuisance avoidance, relatively few municipalities explicitly regulate residential yards to maintain property values, mitigate heat, or avoid allergens. Meanwhile, biological conservation and water quality protection are common goals, yet regulations on yard management practices (e.g., non-native plants or chemical inputs) sometimes contradict these purposes. In addition, regulations emphasizing aesthetics and the maintenance of vegetation, mowing of grass and weeds, as well as the removal of dead wood, may inhibit wildlife-friendly yards. As a whole, landscaping ordinances largely ignore tradeoffs between interacting goals and outcomes, thereby limiting their potential to support landscape sustainability. Recommendations therefore include coordinated, multiobjective planning through partnerships among planners, developers, researchers, and non-government entities at multiple scales.

The Perception of Ecosystem Services of Mountain Farming and of a Local Cheese: An Analysis for the Touristic Valorization of an Inner Alpine Area

Mountain husbandry systems and their related products may directly or indirectly provide either ecosystem services (ESs) or disservices to humanity. The present study aims to evaluate the perception that a local mountain community has towards animal husbandry in the Lanzo Valleys (Piedmont, Italy) and towards the typical local dairy product, Toma di Lanzo, as well as to investigate the consumers’ habits and preferences, to detect possible positive impacts on mountain tourism. A questionnaire was delivered to 233 respondents. The perception of the impact was scored using a five-point Likert scale. The results show a very positive perception of the product Toma di Lanzo because of its origin and type of processing, with different perceptions of the local society depending on age (p < 0.01), residence (p < 0.01), and education level (p < 0.05). The respondents had a very positive awareness of the impact of mountain livestock farming in the Lanzo Valleys. The most important perceived ESs are cultural identity and maintenance of local breeds. Women, non-residents, and respondents with an intermediate education level generally had a more positive perception of ESs. There was a very low perception of disservices derived from mountain animal farming. The main perceived obstacles to the spread of benefits derived from these farming systems were the scarce presence of specific supporting politics and the low income generated by mountain farming activities. The coexistence of touristic activities and extensive livestock farming systems has to be associated with a better promotion of mountain products like Toma di Lanzo to improve the sustainability of mountain regions.

Conservation Wildflower Plantings Do Not Enhance On-Farm Abundance of Amblyomma americanum (Ixodida: Ixodidae).

Simple SummaryPlanting wildflowers is a commonly used tool to conserve pollinators. However, it is possible that wildflower plantings may inadvertently aid tick species, complicating both vector control and pollinator conservation programs. In this study, we tested whether conservation wildflower plantings enhanced the on-farm abundance of the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.). Over two years, A. americanum were sampled using dry ice traps in wildflower plots, weedy field margins, and forested areas. We found no more A. americanum in wildflower plots than in weedy field margins. Forested areas harbored the greatest number of A. americanum sampled. Overall, wildflower plots do not pose an increased risk of exposure to A. americanum on farms. Planting wildflowers is a commonly suggested measure to conserve pollinators. While beneficial for pollinators, plots of wildflowers may be inadvertently performing an ecosystem disservice by providing a suitable habitat for arthropod disease vectors like ticks. The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.), is a medically important tick species that might be able to utilize wildflower plantings as a suitable habitat. In this two-year study, ticks were sampled using dry ice baited traps from wildflower plots, weedy field margins, and forested areas to determine if wildflower plantings were increasing the on-farm abundance of A. americanum. Abiotic and biotic environmental variables were also measured to better understand which factors affect A. americanum abundance. We found no more A. americanum in wildflower plots than in weedy field margins. Forested areas harbored the greatest number of A. americanum sampled. The height of the vegetation in the sampled habitats was a significant factor in determining A. americanum abundance. Depending on the sampled habitat and life stage, this relationship can be positive or negative. The relationship with vegetation height may be related to the behavior of the white-tailed deer and the questing success of A. americanum. Overall, wildflower plots do not pose an increased risk of exposure to A. americanum on farms.

Vascular plants diversity in short rotation coppices: a reliable source of ecosystem services or farmland dead loss?

Short rotation coppices (SRCs) are a relatively new type of crop stand that is usually established on agricultural land in intensively used landscapes. However, SRCs also offer services other than the production of renewable energy. We evaluated the more complex significance of SRCs by including the other important potential ecosystem services of these stands. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the ecosystem services and disservices of SRCs by inductive (bottom-up) methods moving from the species-level to the ecosystem services on the basis of the spontaneous vascular plants diversity in SRCs. We also compared the plant-diversity-based potential ecosystem services and disservices of field SRCs, crops and forests in the same landscape in southwestern Slovakia. It was found that SRCs had an intermediate vascular plants species composition between those of forest ecosystems and agroecosystems. Among the ten evaluated ecosystem services and disservices, considering the sum of the positive and negative evaluations, SRCs had an intermediate position between the forests and arable-land vegetation. When comparing the ecosystem services of the SRCs with those of the forest ecosystems and agroecosystems, the SRCs achieved the best rating for species richness, remediation and collectables. SRCs had the worst rating for providing pasture and had the highest proportion of toxic and allergenic plants. Interestingly, SRCs achieved positive values in ecosystem services and mainly recorded the worst values in the ecosystem disservices. The direct utilization of these services and the economic balance of ecosystem services and disservices require further study.

Regenerativescapes: Incremental Evaluation for the Regeneration of Unresolved Territories in East Naples

The unresolved territories are privileged places for the proliferation of degradation phenomena that affect the environment and human well-being. The impacts of their critical conditions go beyond the limits of the damaged urban fragments, involving the built environment, society, economy, culture, and conditioning quality of life. This paper proposes a methodological approach to landscape design supported by an evaluation framework to orient strategic design planning with specific attention to unresolved territories consistent with the circular economy perspective. The circular city principles are applied to landscape spatial planning, by operationalising Ecosystem Services, Landscape Services, and Ecosystem Disservices, as interpretative categories for multi-dimensional regenerative strategies. Starting from a theoretical framework, the objective of the analysis is to implement an approach to the regenerative design of landscapes of waste, defined wastescapes. The industrial area of East Naples is the case study where an incremental evaluative approach has been defined to design scenarios to provide services and values, aimed to drive the conversion in a regenerativescape. A multi-criteria analysis through preference ranking organisation method for enriched evaluation (PROMETHEE)-GAIA method has been implemented to compare the base case scenario with two incremental new scenarios and identify situated sustainable priorities.

Integrating Ecosystem Services and Disservices in Valuing Smallholder Livestock and Poultry Production in Three Villages in South Africa

This study presents an integrated examination of both the ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem disservices (EDS) associated with smallholder animal husbandry in rural livelihoods in three villages in southeast South Africa. It recognises the contribution of ES supporting and resulting from smallholder livestock and poultry production, but also details the limiting factors or EDS, such as tick-borne disease, birds of prey or unpalatable rangeland, produced by the same system. Using a mixed-methods approach, including focus group discussions with various Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) activities, key informant interviews, household surveys and land-use change mapping on GIS, we consider the relative value and benefits from ES after the effects of EDS, as well as the management and strategies that households adopt to minimise EDS. The effects of ES and EDS were expressed in economic terms to provide a common framework to assess the magnitude of their contribution or effect. Although animal husbandry made measurable contributions to households, with an average gross value of between R2605–R9753 across villages, EDS undermined the meaningful production of livestock and poultry goods and services. The average EDS-induced economic loss in households was between R8289–R22,426 per annum. Despite active management, often at substantial cost to the household, EDS undermined the health of livestock which resulted in a loss of the animal or potential goods and services produced. We emphasise the need to recognise both the positive and negative contributions of ecosystems to identify the complex feedbacks between ES and EDS which interact to determine local ways of doing things.

A microbial perspective on balancing trade-offs in ecosystem functions in a constructed stormwater wetland

Green stormwater infrastructure, such as constructed wetlands (CWs), is a type of stormwater control measure that can decrease nutrient and pollutant loads from urban stormwater runoff. Wetland soil microorganisms provide nutrient and pollutant removal benefits which can also result in ecosystem disservices such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and can inadvertently exacerbate climate change. Microbial respiration by facultative anaerobes in anoxic conditions is the primary pathway for nitrogen removal (benefit). Similar anoxic conditions that support denitrifying microorganisms can also support obligate anaerobes that produce methane (CH4) via methanogenesis (disservice). We examined nitrogen removal potential, GHG production, and microbial community structure within permanently flooded and shallow land or temporarily-flooded areas of a stormwater CW to identify zones for CW design optimization. Results indicate that permanently flooded zones compared to shallow land zones are greater sources of CH4 emissions (80.80 ± 118.31, 2.32 ± 9.33 mg CH4-C m−2 h−1, respectively) and emit more carbon to the atmosphere (7161.27 kg CO2, 93.20 kg CO2 equivalents, respectively). However, nitrogen removal potential rates were similar across both flooded and shallow land zones (24.45 ± 20.18, 20.29 ± 15.14 ng N2O-N hr−1 g−1 dry soil, respectively). At this particular CW, reduction of permanently flooded zones within the wetland could decrease GHG emissions (disservice) without limiting nitrogen removal (benefit) potential of the wetland. Holistic development and design of stormwater control measures, which account for microbial activity, provides the opportunity to maximize benefits (i.e., nutrient and pollutant removal) and reduce disservices (i.e., GHG emissions) of green stormwater infrastructure.

Provision of contrasted nitrogen-related ecosystem services among grain legumes

Legumes deliver unique functions that are complementary to those of other groups of species (cereals and oil-rich crops), providing many ecosystem services related to nitrogen. However, the choice of grain legumes according to their ability to provide these ecosystem services remains difficult due to a lack of references for a variety of species. During two legume – wheat successions established between 2014 and 2017, five nitrogen pools were measured, and considered as proxies of nitrogen functions supporting ecosystem services and dis-services. Nitrogen pools were analyzed together with several of their explanatory shoot and root characteristics (i.e. plant traits and properties). For the first time, a wide range of grain legumes could be characterized by their contrasted functional profiles relative to nitrogen. For each species, synergies and trade-offs between the different nitrogen functions were highlighted and related to the explanatory plant characteristics. Shoot and root characteristics explained 76.1% of the variability of nitrogen functions among legumes species. Chickpea, common bean, and soybean had high capacity to take up soil nitrogen during their growth cycles, reducing the risk of nitrogen losses after their harvest. These species were characterized by a high root lateral expansion rate and their capacity to invest a large proportion of belowground biomass in nodules. Conversely, common vetch, faba bean, lentil, pea and Narbonne vetch, were less able to take up soil nitrogen, with higher risks of nitrogen losses, but these species induced high amounts of nitrogen in the following wheat crop and were characterized by high crop residue nitrogen concentration. Larger amounts of nitrogen fixed and exported in seeds were measured for species characterized by high shoot dry matter, high nitrogen harvest index, high seed nitrogen concentration, and large seeds. Hence, this study should facilitate the selection of legume species according to the expected objectives.