Eastern Han Dynasty Research Articles

Exploring circulation dynamics in Han Dynasty China: insights from isotopic analysis of lead glazed pottery

This study investigates lead provenance and circulation patterns in Han Dynasty (202BC-220AD) China through the analysis of lead glazed pottery. Four objects were studied using a combination of typological study, elemental chemistry and lead isotope ratio analysis. The results for each object were compared with databases of ‘lead mining districts’ (lead deposits) and ‘lead usage districts’ (lead-containing artifacts unearthed in different spatial and temporal ranges) to assess the lead sources used for each sample and offers a spatial-temporal range of the use of these lead resources. Three distinct groups of lead and their possible circulating spatial-temporal scales are identified across six samples in this study. A possible change in lead supply networks between the Western Han Dynasty (202BC-9AD) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (25AD-220AD) is proposed. This study also highlights the probable changes in the movement of lead resources from the Western Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty (618AD-690AD), suggesting improvements in long-distance transport capabilities, and the development of economic divisions and exchange connections in ancient Chinese society. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the economic and political dynamics during the Han Dynasty and emphasize the significance of lead isotope analysis of glazed pottery in exploring resource movement.

A Study on Metallurgical Artifacts Excavated from Luojiaba Site H235 in the Eastern Sichuan Region during the Eastern Han Dynasty

Currently, research remains limited on ironworking workshops in China and even throughout East Asia. The discovery of Luojiaba Site H235 in 2021 provides significant new material on this issue. This paper comprehensively organized the metallurgical artifacts and employed technological methods such as XRF and SEM-EDS to analyze the slag and hammerscale excavated from Luojiaba Site H235. First, the chemical composition and microstructural phases of the slag were analyzed, with an examination of the hammerscale. Second, the processes leading to the formation of slag and hammerscale are discussed. Third, based on the scale of the site, the chemical composition, and the characteristic shapes of the slag, combined with Serneels’ theoretical framework for quantitative analysis of forging slag, the slag unearthed from Luojiaba Site H235 was tentatively categorized as forging slag. This suggests that the workshop primarily produced or repaired iron objects through forging. Finally, considering the furnace shapes observed at contemporary sites and discussions on the potential sources of iron materials at the Luojiaba site, speculations are made regarding the furnace structure at the Luojiaba site and the possible origin of its iron materials. Unlike ironworking workshops at other contemporary sites, the location of the forging workshop at Luojiaba Site H235 presents a distinctly different choice, situated within a village or town during the Eastern Han Dynasty. This choice of location may reflect a phenomenon closer to consumer proximity. Therefore, analyzing metallurgical artifacts unearthed from Luojiaba contributes to understanding the operation of ironworking workshops and the distribution of resources in village-level settlements in the eastern Sichuan region during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

The Lacquer Craft of the Corridor Coffin (徼道棺) from Tomb No. 2 of Tushan in Eastern Han Dynasty, Xuzhou

Tomb No. 2 of Tushan in Xuzhou is the tomb of King Chu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, and it was an important archaeological discovery in China. The unique placement and crafting techniques of a lacquer coffin that was unearthed from the burial corridor are of significant importance in the study of tombs. In order to characterise the sample’s microstructure, elemental composition, and structural composition, as well as to study the crafting techniques of the coffin in the corridor, a range of analytical techniques were employed, including ultra-depth microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with SEM-EDS, Raman spectroscopy, FTIR, and XRD. The results indicate that the cross-sectional structure of the fragments comprises a pigment layer and a lacquer ash layer, with the latter being further divided into tile ash and bone ash layers. No lacquer film layer was observed. The primary colouring agent in the pigment layer was HgS, which contained a minor quantity of organic binder. The primary component of the tile ash layer was quartz, while the osseous ash layer comprised particles and collagen derived from mammalian bones. The lacquer crafting technique employed in the construction of the coffin was relatively simple and inconsistent with the assumption of it having a noble status. The findings of this research offer experimental data for the identification, preservation, and technical restoration of the corridor coffin in the future.

Chaihu Guizhi Decoction prevents cognitive, memory impairments and sensorimotor gating deficit induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antibody in mice

Ethnopharmacological relevanceAnti-NMDAR encephalitis is one of the most common types of autoimmune encephalitis, primarily presenting with prodromal symptoms, such as fever and headache, followed by a range of neurological and psychiatric symptoms. Chaihu Guizhi Decoction (CGD), a traditional Chinese medicine formulated by Zhang Zhongjing in the Eastern Han Dynasty, has been effectively used in clinical practice to treat the symptoms of Taiyang and Shaoyang disorders, including fever, headache, and psychiatric disorders. Aim of the studyTo demonstrate the protective effects of CGD in an animal model of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and explore the potential mechanisms involved. Materials and methodsUHPLC-HRMS was used to identify CGD's chemical components and serum metabolomic profiles. Network pharmacology and molecular docking were performed to predict potential targets of CGD for the treatment of anti-NMDAR encephalitis. The effect of CGD on anti-NMDAR encephalitis was evaluated using a mouse model induced by patients' antibodies. Behavioral tests were performed to assess cognitive impairment and schizophrenia-like behaviors. The effect of CGD on the cell-surface NMDAR GluN1 subunit in cultured neurons treated with patient antibodies was detected by immunofluorescence. Golgi staining was used to observe morphological changes in hippocampal dendrites. The expression of NMDAR-interacting proteins and various neuroreceptors in the hippocampus were examined to validate the targets predicted using network pharmacology and molecular docking. ResultsCGD alleviated cognitive, memory, and sensorimotor gating deficits in mice treated with anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients’ antibodies. Further experiments demonstrated the effect of CGD in preventing NMDAR reduction both in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, CGD regulated NMDAR-interacting proteins and dopamine receptors but did not affect hippocampal dendritic morphology and synaptic density. Additionally, CGD modifies metabolic pathways associated with anti-NMDAR encephalitis and other neurological and psychiatric disorders. ConclusionsCGD exhibited protective effects against anti-NMDAR encephalitis by mitigating the antibody-induced reduction in NMDAR and NMDAR-interacting proteins.

Lingguizhugan decoction ameliorates cognitive impairment in AD-like mice by influencing the microbiome–gut–brain axis mediated by SCFAs

BackgroundLingguizhugan (LGZG) decoction, an ancient Chinese herbal remedy originating from the Eastern Han Dynasty, consists of Poria cocos, Cinnamomi ramulus, Atractylodes macrocephala, and Glycyrrhiza, as described in the Golden Chamber Synopsis. It has a history spanning over 1600 years, in which it has been primarily used for the treatment of inflammation, injuries, and fluid retention; however, the potential of LGZG decoction to ameliorate Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression by modulating the gut–brain axis through attenuation of gut microbiota and their metabolites remains unknown. PurposeTo examine the in vivo anti-AD effects and mechanism of LGZG decoction in alleviating AD cognitive impairment. Study designTwo-part experiments in vivo were designed, one for behavior tests, intestinal and brain histopathology, intestinal microbiome and quantitative determination, and another one for metabolite supplementation study. MethodsAlCl3/D-gal was used to establish an AD-like mouse model. Behavioral tests, such as the Morris water maze test, were used to assess the effect of LGZG decoction on cognitive dysfunction. The concentration of proinflammatory mediators was measured by ELISA. The protein content was detected by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. The content of short-chain fatty acids was measured by LC-MS/MS. Evaluation of 16S rRNA gene sequencing for species and strain-level gut microbiome analysis was performed. ResultsLGZG decoction mitigated cognitive impairment in an AD-like mouse model, and decreased the deposition of amyloid-β and the production of proinflammatory cytokines in the brain. LGZG decoction remodeled the intestinal microecology, enhanced the integrity of the intestinal and brain tissue barriers, and modulated Aβ transportation through gut microbiota metabolite SCFAs. The neuroprotective effect of SCFAs on the AD-like model mice may be manifested through the inhibition of pP38 of the MAPK signaling pathway. ConclusionOur results suggest that LGZG decoction reshapes the gut microbiota. SCFAs derived from the gut microbiota ameliorate the cognitive decline induced by AlCl3/D-gal through the gut–brain axis and reduce brain Aβ aggregation. We propose LGZG decoction as a potential therapeutic option for AD.

Political unrest in Ling Nan during the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Tomb of Lei Cheng Uk

Political unrest in Ling Nan during the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Tomb of Lei Cheng Uk

Tablets (Du) and Passages (Zhang): the Material Conditions for the Formation of Early Short Passage Texts

Abstract Several studies have addressed the question of whether the people of early China wrote with thin bamboo strips held in their hands or whether they wrote with the support of flat desks. However, scholars have not addressed the distinction between jian (bamboo strips) and larger du (wooden tablets) in everyday writing. In early China, tablets would be held in the hand to write, while strips would be laid flat on a writing desk. Tablets were the main medium of everyday writing during the period spanning the pre-Qin and Western and Eastern Han dynasties. In the drafting of various literary texts, taking court records, and taking classroom notes, tablets were the primary writing medium. Among written materials from before the Western Han dynasty, duan zhang (short passages) were the most common style of writing, and most texts were composed of short passages. Among the early Chinese manuscripts that have been unearthed, short passages are also very common. However, almost no one has raised the question of why a documentary system dominated by short passages was formed in the pre-Qin and Western and Eastern Han dynasties period. The number of characters that a writing tablet can accommodate essentially coincides with the number of characters in short passages in early Chinese manuscripts. In view of its wide use, I propose that the formation of the short passage form was potentially influenced by the material writing medium of the tablet.

Case Study Of The Battle Of Red Cliff In The Late Han Dynasty Era

The Battle of Red Cliff, also known as the Battle of Chibi, was a decisive naval battle in the winter of 208-209 AD during the late Han Dynasty, about twelve years before the beginning of the Three Kingdoms Period in Chinese history, the battle was fought between the allied forces of Sun Quan, Liu Bei and Liu Qi against the superior forces of the Northern Warlord Premier Cao Cao. Liu Bei and Sun Quan thwarted Cao Cao's attempt to conquer the southern Yangtze River and reunite the Eastern Han Dynasty Kingdom. In this river warfare, the superiority of weather, wind direction, knowledge of the seasons, and war strategy using ships became dominant compared to the number of troops, knowledge of the terrain was the key to the victory of Liu Bei and Sun Quan's alliance. From this story we can learn that the superior power was defeated by the weaker Imperior Power but had the right Strategy at the right time and the Red Cliff was a witness to the battle of the two warring parties, where the Liu Bei and Sun Quan alliance became the Winner.

Scientific analysis of iron objects excavated from the Guantian Iron Production Site at Sangzhi County, Hunan Province, China

The Guantian site located in Sangzhi County in northwest Hunan Province, China. It is a low-level settlement and possibly an iron casting and processing site that existed during the Han and Jin periods (202 BCE–AD 420) in the Wuling Mountains region. Analysis of the excavated iron objects from the site reveals that they were mainly made from pig iron, malleable cast iron, and low-carbon steel. The metallurgical ceramic fragments may reflect the existence of melting process. Both casting and forging, with evidence of quenching technique were used in the producing process. Decarburization of cast iron in solid state was the main method of obtaining steel. Since during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220), the aboriginal in the Wuling Mountains region gradually became stronger, the use of iron-casting and processing technology played an important role in promoting regional social development of the Wuling Man (minorities in the Wuling Mountains region).

From Myths, Ci and Fu Works to Temple Worship: A New Inquiry into the Evolution of Fu Fei 宓妃, the Goddess of the Luo River

Luo Shen 洛神 (The Goddess of the Luo River), also known as Fu Fei 宓妃 (Consort Fu), governed the Luo River and was a deity with distinctive representativeness and influence in the Luoyang area of China. To date, research has been centered around literary works and paintings, particularly Luoshen Fu 洛神賦, with little exploration into the belief of the Goddess of the Luo River. In this paper, specific and detailed textual research is made on the origins and historical transformations, as well as functional shifts, of the Goddess of the Luo River from the perspective of belief in the deity. Based on extant ancient documents and stele inscriptions and combined with anthropological field research, five new ideas are described. First, rituals honoring the Luo River were present in ancient times, yet the deity of the Luo River was initially a male entity called Luo Bo 洛伯, not the goddess Consort Fu. Second, Consort Fu first appears in Li Sao 離騷 as a goddess from the Kunlun Mountains. Third, during the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220), driven by the political and cultural needs of rulers to maintain regime stability, the Goddess of Kunlun, Consort Fu, became the Goddess of the Luo River. Fourth, in the medieval period, the image of the Goddess of the Luo River underwent a historic transformation, evolving from a deity governing the Luo River to a beauty yearning for secular love, merging with the historical figure of Zhen Fei 甄妃 (Consort Zhen) from the Cao Wei dynasty (220–266), forming a unified literary and artistic figure that significantly broadened the social influence of the Goddess of the Luo River. Fifth, the state-sponsored worship of the Goddess of the Luo River reached its peak during the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties, and afterward, it gradually declined to a local folk belief due to a shift in the political center. The transition of the belief in the Goddess of the Luo River from official to folk realms, deeply intertwining with people’s lives, is a historical reflection of the eastward shift in the imperial center after the Tang dynasty. It also signifies a transformation of the function of the belief in the Goddess of the Luo River, from a political guardian deity ensuring the nation’s peace and the government’s stability to a protective deity for ordinary people’s family stability and prosperity of descendants.

Regionalism and diversity: the supply characteristics of metal resources in Southwestern China during the Eastern Han dynasty reflected by the bronzes from Zhaotong, Yunnan Province

Regionalism and diversity: the supply characteristics of metal resources in Southwestern China during the Eastern Han dynasty reflected by the bronzes from Zhaotong, Yunnan Province

Exploring pottery origin by composition and technique comparison: a case study at the Daqu burial site, Beijing, China

Scientific analysis of excavated pottery reveals critical archaeological insights, yet data on Han Dynasty pottery remains limited. This study focuses on pottery artifacts excavated from the Daqu burial site in Beijing, renowned for their polychrome decorations and size. Utilizing optical microscopy (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), this study examined five substrate samples sourced from fragments of pottery towers and ellipse-shaped dishes. All samples exhibited similar inclusions and the same firing atmosphere. The mineralogical analysis indicated that quartz and feldspar are predominant components, with minor constituents like chlorite and kaolinite observed in the coarse pottery of the ellipse-shaped dish. Minor mineral variations suggest differences in firing temperatures. The resemblance between low-value pottery cups and delicate polychrome towers suggests they were crafted locally. These findings advance our understanding of ceramic materials and techniques in late Eastern Han Dynasty Beijing, providing crucial insights for future studies on ancient Chinese economy and society.

Network pharmacology analysis and experimental verification of the antithrombotic active compounds of trichosanthis pericarpium (Gualoupi) in treating coronary heart disease

Ethnopharmacological relevanceTrichosanthis pericarpium (TP; Gualoupi, pericarps of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim) has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to reduce heat, resolve phlegm, promote Qi, and clear chest congestion. It is also an essential herbal ingredient in the “Gualou Xiebai” formula first recorded by Zhang Zhongjing (from the Eastern Han Dynasty) in the famous TCM classic “Jin-Guì-Yào-Lüe” for treating chest impediments. According to its traditional description, Gualou Xiebai is indicated for symptoms of chest impediments, which correspond to coronary heart diseases (CHD). Aim of the studyThis study aimed to identify the antithrombotic compounds in Gualoupi for the treatment of CHD. Materials and methodsA CHD rat model was established with a combination of high-fat diet and isoproterenol hydrochloride (ISO) administration via subcutaneous multi-point injection in the back of the neck. This model was used to evaluate the antithrombotic effect of two mainstream cultivars of TP (“HaiShi GuaLou” and “WanLou”) by analyzing the main components and their effects. Network pharmacology, molecular docking-based studies, and a zebrafish (Danio rerio) thrombosis model induced by phenylhydrazine was used to validate the antithrombosis components of TP. ResultsTP significantly reduced the body weight of the CHD rats, improved myocardial ischemia, and reduced collagen deposition and fibrosis around the infarcted tissue. It reduced thrombosis in a dose-dependent manner and significantly reduced inflammation and oxidative stress damage. Cynaroside, isoquercitrin, rutin, citrulline, and arginine were identified as candidate active TP compounds with antithrombotic effects. The key potential targets of TP in thrombosis treatment were initially identified by molecular docking-based analysis, which showed that the candidate active compounds have a strong binding affinity to the potential targets (protein kinase C alpha type [PKCα], protein kinase C beta type [PKCβ], von Willebrand factor [vWF], and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 [PTGS1], fibrinogen alpha [Fga], fibrinogen beta [Fgb], fibrinogen gamma [Fgg], coagulation factor II [F2], and coagulation factor VII [F7]). In addition, the candidate active compounds reduced thrombosis, improved oxidative stress damage, and down-regulated the expression of thrombosis-related genes (PKCα, PKCβ, vWF, PTGS1, Fga, Fgb, Fgg, F2, and F7) in the zebrafish model. ConclusionCynaroside, isoquercitrin, rutin, citrulline, and arginine were identified as the active antithrombotic compounds of TP used to treat CHD. Mechanistically, the active compounds were found to be involved in oxidative stress injury, platelet activation pathway, and complement and coagulation cascade pathways.

안악 3호분 벽화의 중원 색채와 그 의의

The main content of the mural painting of Anak Tomb No. 3, a tomb which belongs to the emergent stage of Goguryeo mural tombs, is the life of the tomb owner in his life. It is the same with the mural tombs of China from the Eastern-Han Dynasty. Anak Tomb No. 3 is quite similar to the mural tombs of central China and Liaoyang in terms of the structure of the tomb, as well as the composition and content of the mural painting. Various prestige goods such as a type of cart (通幰車), drapes and a tent (帷帳), a folding screen and flat bench (屛榻), a type of pole (節), a type of folding fan (麈尾扇) depicted on the mural painting of Anak Tomb No.3 represent the official rank, written in black ink on the mural painting of this tomb’s owner, and these contents are the same as those of the mural tombs of central China which are of the same level. This presence of objects originating from central China found on the mural painting of Anak Tomb No.3 and Deokheungri tomb indicates that the Daedong River Estuary basin (which includes the Pyongyang area) maintained a different social and cultural aspect from the Jian area, until the Goguryeo capital was relocated from Jian to Pyongyang in 427. There is a view that Dong Su was not the owner of the tomb, but a gate guard (門吏) written as “Jang Ha Dok” (帳下督) on the wall of the entrance of the western chamber. “Jang Ha Dok” is a subordinate official belonging to the first to third rank of the Wei-Jin Period. According to an ink handwriting record, Dong Su’s rank corresponds to the second to third official rank of the Wei-Jin Period. Therefore, Dong Su cannot be regarded as “Jang Ha Dok”. A type of pole called “jul” (節) on the mural painting reflects the office of “Sa Ji Jul” (使持節) written in black ink. In addition, the oxcart with the tomb owner is a type of cart called Tong Hun Gu (通幰車), which the second to third official rank rode. Therefore, it is most reasonable to regard the owner of Anak Tomb No. 3 as Dong Su, as is written in black ink.

The Generation and Transfer of the “Sweet” Category in Calligraphy Appreciation

Ancient Chinese calligraphy theories often “discuss calligraphy by taste”. “Taste” is an essential category of classical Chinese aesthetics, and is a concrete expression of the spirit of Chinese art. In contemporary calligraphic critical discourse, outside of the audiovisual norms, the Chinese calligraphic tradition of “discussing calligraphy by taste” is undoubtedly an ideological resource that cannot be ignored. “Gan”. In English is called “pleasant” and was originally one of the five flavors, and in the Eastern Han Dynasty, it slowly developed the meaning of “Tian” (sweet) to describe the taste. “Sweet”, as an aesthetic category, appeared in a large number of poetry, calligraphy, and painting theories in the Ming and Qing dynasties and beyond. Since the Tang Dynasty, “Sweet” has been combined with “Vulgar”. The word “Sweet” was formally introduced into the realm of painting and calligraphy appreciation. This article utilizes the theory of aesthetics and combines it with physiology, psychology, and other disciplines to explain discussing calligraphy by “Sweet”. An analysis of the generation and transfer of the category of “Sweet” in the appreciation of calligraphy reveals the mutual borrowing and influence of art theories. After sorting and analyzing, it can be seen that “Sweet” refers to works that are overly modified, not chewable, and have no flavor outside the taste. Or works with too much “craftsmanship”, too much skill, too much ink, and works that are opposite to the beauty of “clumsiness” and “lightness” appreciated by ancient calligraphers.

Interpretation of associative cultural landscape based on text mining of poetry: taking Tianmu Mountain on the Road of Tang Poetry in Eastern Zhejiang as an example

AbstractRevealing the association between natural elements and “religion, culture, or art” through text mining of poetry provides a new perspective for in-depth interpretation of Associative Cultural Landscape. Taking Tianmu Mountain, an important spot on the Road of Tang Poetry in Eastern Zhejiang, as an example, this study focuses on 444 poems written by 269 poets from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty in the Tianmu Mountain region. Text mining methods, such as text segmentation and social network analysis, are employed to conduct frequency statistics and association analysis of Landscape Terms in the poetry. The findings are as follows: (1) The descriptions in the poems bear witness to the beautiful and diverse Natural Landscape, the abundant Humanistic Landscape, and the unique Folk Landscape of Tianmu Mountain. These collectively reflect Tianmu Mountain with its religious features of cultivating both Buddhism and Taoism, cultural features of accumulating abundance and influence, as well as artistic features of blending picturesque charm and poetic grace. (2) The Cultural Landscape of Tianmu Mountain described in poetry across different dynasties exhibits characteristics of four relationships: “Group Relationship, Hierarchical Relationship, Interactive Relationship, and Cognitive Relationship.” It reveals the close association between natural elements in the Tianmu Mountain and “religion, culture, or art.” The research has constructed a theoretical model for interpreting the Multi-relationship within Associative Cultural Landscape, as well as provide the support of theories and methods for understanding the characteristics and interpreting the association of global Associative Cultural Landscape. It offers crucial scientific foundations for their overall conservation and sustainable utilization.

Exploring the reasons for the rise and fall of Taoism from the perspective of historical development: Taking several key periods as examples

The paper delves into the historical development of Taoism, analyzing its rise and fall across various Chinese dynasties. It begins with the Eastern Han dynasty, emphasizing Zhang Ling’s role in establishing Taoism as a significant religious force. The paper highlights the strategic expansion of Taoist influence under Zhang Lu in Sichuan. During the South North Dynasty, the focus shifts to Tao Hongjing’s efforts in integrating Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian ideas, thereby creating a comprehensive deity system. The contributions of Ge Hong, especially in alchemy and the concept of ’inner alchemy’, are noted in the context of the Danding School. The peak of ancient Taoism is traced back to the Song and Yuan dynasties, underscoring the pivotal support of emperors and the roles of figures like Zhang Zhengsui and Zhang Jixian in promoting Taoism. However, the Ming and Qing dynasties saw Taoism’s decline due to the suppression of religious practices and its reduction to a mere cultural aspect for the royal family and aristocracy. The paper concludes by proposing a future path for Taoism, emphasizing the need for adaptation to modern society. It suggests that Taoism should lower barriers to entry and increase its relevance to contemporary life, learning from other religions like Christianity, to sustain its growth and significance in the modern era.

How the metal supply for mintage shifts in the transforming monetary system of the Han Empire: Archaeometallurgical study of the Wuzhu coins from the Guanghuacun cemetery, Chengdu, Southwest China

The monetary system and the metal supply for mintage are both important for state governance. The relationship between these two issues in the Han Empire, China, still need to be verified. In this paper, 23 Wuzhu五铢 coins of the three Shanglin offices (上林三官, SLSG) of the Western Han dynasty (202BCE-8CE, WHD) and the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE, EHD), excavated from Guanghuacun cemetery, Chengdu city, were studied by SEM-EDS, ICP-AES and MC-ICP-MS, etc. The results show Cu-Sn-Pb, Cu-Sn, and Cu-Sb-Sn-Pb alloys, and identify one of the coins with the highest content of tin in ancient China. The lead isotopes and trace elements reflect the changes in the provenances of metal materials for mintage from concentrated to scattered between the SLSG and EHD periods. The lead isotopes infer that the lead of SLSG coins was mainly derived from the Xiaoqinling小秦岭 region, and the sources of lead for EHD coins should include the Xiaoqinling, the Sichuan-Yunnan-Guizhou Rhombic Block川滇黔菱形地块, the Qinling秦岭, and the lower Yangtze regions. These findings on the shift in metal supply for mintage in the transforming monetary system provide a new insight into the issues of political and economic policy of the Han Empire.

Wood-Use Strategies at a Han Dynasty Military Outpost: New Archaeological Evidence from Shichengzi, Xinjiang

ABSTRACTThe study analyses wood samples recovered from diverse archaeological contexts (a gate, tomb and kiln) at the Shichengzi site, an Eastern Han Dynasty garrison in modern-day Xinjiang dating from the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. The results show extensive exploitation of a single species of conifer (Picea sp.) by Shichengzi residents. The selection and utilisation of this identical species suggest, on the one hand, the widespread use of Picea for building, artefacts and fuel at Shichengzi. It also suggests that Picea's general availability was exploited by Shichengzi's planners. This study offers the first clear evidence for timber-use strategies among the north-western frontier populations of the Han Empire.

From General to Cultural Symbol --- The Romance of Three Kingdoms and the History of Changes in Guan Yu Persona

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms holds a prominent position among the Four Great Classics within the realm of Chinese classical literature. The aforementioned literary work was authored by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist from the Ming Dynasty, and it draws its inspiration from actual occurrences that transpired during the Three Kingdoms era towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Guan Yu holds a prominent position as a highly recognized figure throughout the literary work titled The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The individual in concern has undergone significant influence from several historical dynasties, resulting in the development of a multifaceted and intricate persona. This study aims to examine the development of the character Guan Yu in the literary work The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the subsequent construction of cultural memory surrounding Guan Yu. This will be achieved via a comprehensive literature research and analytical approach. This research aims to enhance the understanding of the evolutionary trajectory and underlying factors that contributed to the transformation of Guan Yu from a historical persona to a literary construct, culminating in his universal veneration within folk culture. Furthermore, this investigation seeks to elucidate the influence exerted by the literary work The Romance of the Three Kingdoms on this transformative process.