EU Eastern Research Articles

Railway security checks at the border: between intrusive security technologies and fundamental traveller rights.

European railway borders are facing a particular exposure to security threats and need a delicate balance between securitization and free movement, especially amid globalisation, the current geopolitical landscape and increased migrant flows. For example, the war in Ukraine illustrated the challenges experienced at the Eastern EU borders by the refugee migration surge in early 2022. This exploratory focuses on the European border security control process from the rail border perspective. It encompasses a descriptive synthesis of the lessons learned from the UIC Refugee Task Force as well as insights from the ongoing EU-funded Horizon Europe project ODYSSEUS (Unobtrusive Technologies for Secure and Seamless Border Crossing for Travel Facilitation). Project ODYSSEUS aims to support the security and integrity of the European space, reduce illegal movements of people and goods across EU borders, facilitate travelling for citizens all while protecting fundamental rights of travellers. The project will test a combination of multi-behavioural and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) compliant biometric user identity verification tools, allowing, when possible, citizens to cross EU border without any interruption or queue. Further, novel luggage and baggage checks will allow citizens' vehicles and cargos to be remotely checked at land borders to speed up the border check processes in a secure and reliable manner. The project will run three pilot tests at road, rail and water borders. In this paper, we analyse the implementation of project's technologies in the rail border crossing pilot test and discuss the implications for the actors involved in the process of railway border crossing (e.g., border authorities, railway operators and railway travellers).

Empowering Future Entrepreneurs: Developing an Online Entrepreneurial Mentoring Program Across Diverse EU Regions

The 2023 European Innovation Scoreboard reveals that there is an innovation asymmetry between different EU regions which is leading to an innovation gap. In particular southern and eastern EU countries showcase a lower level of innovation compared to their northern and western counterparts. Addressing this disparity, the ENTRPRENEDU project, funded by the European Union, pioneers a unique approach tailored for emerging and moderate innovation regions. This paper presents the development process of the curriculum for the ENTRPRENEDU online mentoring program, detailing the demand analysis, curriculum development, and implementation phases. This paper contributes to the discourse on entrepreneurial online education and mentoring program development by showcasing a tailored approach to curriculum design. The findings offer practical insights for educators, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to nurture entrepreneurship and innovation in diverse regional contexts.

Railway security checks at the border: between intrusive security technologies and fundamental traveller rights

Background European railway borders are facing a particular exposure to security threats and need a delicate securitization and free movement, especially amid globalisation, the current geopolitical landscape and increased migrant flows. For example, the war in Ukraine illustrated the challenges experienced at the Eastern EU borders by the refugee migration surge in early 2022. Methods This paper will focus on the European border security control process from the rail border perspective. It will encompass the lessons learned from the UIC Refugee Task Force as well as insights from the ongoing EU-funded Horizon Europe project ODYSSEUS (Unobtrusive Technologies for Secure and Seamless Border Crossing for Travel Facilitation). Project ODYSSEUS aims to support the security and integrity of the European space, reduce illegal movements of people and goods across EU borders, facilitate travelling for citizens all while protecting fundamental rights of travellers. Results The project will test a combination of multi-behavioural and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) compliant biometric user identity verification tools, allowing citizens to cross EU border without any interruption or queue. Further, novel luggage and baggage checks will allow citizens’ vehicles and cargos to be remotely checked at land borders to speed up the border check processes in a secure and reliable manner. The project will run three pilot tests at road, rail and water borders. Conclusion In this paper, we analyse the implementation of project’s technologies in the rail border crossing pilot test and discuss the implications for the actors involved in the process of railway border crossing (e.g., border authorities, railway operators and railway travellers).

EU Energy Securitisation: Ukraine's Place in the European Energy System

This article focuses on the investigation of the European Union's securitisation policy in the energy sector, in particular, the provision of energy carriers to the Union, which was developed in response to Russia's energy wars of 2006–2007 and 2008–2009 against Ukraine and indirectly against the European Union. The theory of securitisation, formulated by S. Ozkan, B. Buzan and other researchers, focuses not so much on eliminating the consequences of crises as on creating a system of securitisation for the relevant industries with increased stress resistance, diversification of economic and technological ties with partners and strengthening the social orientation of their functioning. The algorithmization of this policy and the changes that led to the institutional response to Russian aggression in the energy sector are investigated. The research is based on the approach of sociological (neo)institutionalism, which allows explaining political processes in terms of not only economic benefits, but also their importance for the development of other spheres of public life and international cooperation. This approach is based on the notion that, first, the institutional environment in which a particular institution operates provides it with the necessary resources, as well as legitimates and regulates its activities. As a result, sociological institutionalism emphasises the role of norms, rules, and culture, influencing the self-identification of actors associated with this institution, as well as defining „friends” and „foes” in the overall institutional structure. It is shown that changes in the EU energy policy are dictated not only by economic or technological considerations, but also by the requirement to meet the needs of the population and economy of the EU member states. At the same time, Ukraine's inclusion in the EU's common securitisation system is in the economic, political, and social interests of Ukraine, which, both under the Association Agreement and in the event of its accession to the EU, will have the status of an acceptor country. The article considers possible options for the EU and Ukraine to establish Ukraine as the EU's eastern securitizer and their respective consequences for both parties.

From optimist to sceptical liberalism: reforging European Union foreign policy amid crises

Abstract Russia's invasion of Ukraine brought both condemnation and vindication to the European Union. EU policies were condemned for being complacent, naive and greedy. However, when European leaders conducted a coordinated response backing Ukraine, the war also vindicated the EU as a liberal project. The crisis has led to a surge in support for the EU, unprecedented cooperation across policy areas and new accession negotiations with the EU's eastern neighbours. To understand this shift, the article argues that crisis has catalysed the EU becoming a sceptical liberal actor. Sceptical liberalism is characterized by a bleak view on the trajectory of the international order, a self-critical understanding of Europe's role in it, and a willingness to intervene, including with military means, to tackle political predicaments. The transition changes EU leaders' previous optimistic liberal approach of pursuing peace and prosperity though mediation and interdependence. Distinguishing between ideals and actions, the article argues that liberal ideals remain intact, but a sceptical outlook implies different actions to pursue those ideals. The article's argument challenges longstanding scholarly debates on ‘normal versus normative power Europe’, which build on an excessively bifurcated assessment of EU foreign policy that fails to capture contemporary dynamics and the dilemmas they cause.

External democracy promotion in times of internal rule-of-law crisis: the EU and its neighbourhood

ABSTRACT This article seeks to unpack the implications of the deteriorating rule of law within the EU’s eastern members for the EU’s external democracy promotion. We examine the legitimacy of the EU’s support for democracy in the European neighbourhood in light of the internal EU rule-of-law crisis. Adopting a sociological perspective, we emphasize local perceptions of the EU by tracing the legitimation dynamics at play in neighbouring societies. We adopt a tripartite conception of external legitimacy based on appropriateness, utilitarian consensus, and empathy. Using representative public opinion surveys, we show that the democratic erosion in the eastern EU members has not (yet) negatively impacted the EU’s credibility in supporting democracy in the neighbourhood. The article contributes to the research on the legitimacy of EU foreign policy and the literature on the legitimacy of international organizations. It also contributes to the broader effort at provincializing International Relations and decentring EU foreign policy studies.

The war in Ukraine, the EU’s geopolitical awakening and implications for the “contested neighbourhood”

ABSTRACT This article looks at how the Russian invasion has reshaped the EU's Eastern neighbourhood policy and subsequently how has the new policy affected the strategies of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries. We systematically review policy responses to the war of the EU and the countries of the EU-Russia contested neighbourhood and identify new patterns in foreign policy behavior of these states and key domestic policy changes. We specifically highlight the shift in two key attributes of the EU's foreign policy, which has traditionally defined its neighbourhood policy: its relations with Russia and the inclusiveness of the EaP countries in the European project. We make two arguments: first, the crisis and new risks in the region has created a demand and opened a geopolitical dimension to the EU neighbourhood policy, which required Brussels to fill a hard security vacuum in its own policies in the neighbourhood, which invoked an application of new instruments to deter Moscow and support EU's Eastern allies. Second, the crisis contributes to even faster erosion of the post-Soviet space and a new regional fragmentation along geopolitical lines. Finally, the question of sustainability of these changes and their effect on the EU as an actor remains open.

Application of context-driven methodology for implementing the smart city concept in Czech republic

This paper investigates the significance of context comprehension within the smart city domain by emphasizing the various perspectives of stakeholders such as ministries, municipalities, and citizens. Since the value of service provision depends on the interactions across different service systems within distinct domains and contexts, through an exploration of the value chain and formulation of value propositions, the paper aims to achieve the synergy among diverse service contexts. Using the smart city context of the Czech Republic as a case study, the paper systematically examines the implementation of context-driven methodology and provides insights for the broader development of smart cities. Also, this study highlights the importance of understanding service overlaps and identifies key issues for future service research, with potential applicability in smart city initiatives, particularly in middle and eastern EU countries.

The new EU energy security reality and its impact on the wider Black Sea region

This brief in-depth research “The new EU energy security reality and its impact on the wider Black Sea region” on a security Studies was organized by David Aghmashenebeli National Defence Academy of Georgia, Germany. Its goal is to support the security of the Wider Black Sea Region energy supply chains. The purpose of this project is to answer to the main question: Will EU energy security impact the south-eastern flank of the Euro-Atlantic space. Russia's war in Ukraine has created new problems that are not addressed by outdated security programs and old-fashioned traditional defence approaches. That the war in Ukraine is not the cause of a future conflict against the world order is not a new point of view, furthermore, the war in Ukraine is one of the results of the already existing conflict. It is a real possibility that the Kremlin will continue its aggressive foreign policy towards its neighbours and neighbours of neighbours in order to consolidate global power and "legitimacy". The eternal war in the region exposed the EU’s economic weaknesses in energy exports and supply chains. Military professionals believe that whoever controls the east of the Euro-Atlantic space and/or dominates the Black Sea, can easily project power on the European continent, Central Europe, the Mediterranean, the North/South Caucasus and the Middle East. Russia eternal war has shown us more dependence, weaponization, interference and more vulnerability of the EU Countries; Security is no longer based on the previously established rules. In the near future It’s unlikely that relations between the EU and Russia will be based on beneficial energy relations. The European Union is moving beyond the binary dependency that binds international actors, creating a new reality in which the inclusiveness of energy security extends to several different areas, diversification will be critical for the EU. Supply chains are complicated and messy, it’s implausible to make positive changes overnight. Taking into account Russia sharp growth in military spending, its ability to integrate state resources and masses and it’s "great propensity for risk" makes Russia both a “capable and unpredictable actor”. Russia's blackmail to use nuclear weapons indicates that Kremlin is losing the war due to lack of ammunition and low technological capabilities and in the short term wants to take this war into a protracted or frozen conflict phase. According to the analysis of the processes of the recent past, the stability of the region cannot be successful and effective only with the support of NATO member states on EU's eastern flank. NATO, EU and their partners should have an emergency and long-term assistance strategy for the parties. From the lesson learnt in the last 30+ years on international cooperation issues it is vital that in the next 10-30 years the Euro-Atlantic and regional countries (except Russia) in the region, must counter challenges with collective deterrence of cooperation. Actively promoting stability is possible through the existence of the theory of Russian deterrence. Stability should be achieved by promoting collective deterrence and integration of Russia; a strategy of emergency and long-term assistance not only for alliance members, but also for partners, plus collective deterrence equals fixing and integration of Russia. Speeches and workshops used in editing this paper, Organized by the Research and Policy Analysis Department (RPA) project of Strategic Competition Seminar Series-FY23 SCSS of George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies (GCMC) at Workshop I held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 20-24 February 2023 entitled “Alternative Ukrainian Future Trajectories: Implications for Russia and the West” and Workshop II held in Berlin, Germany on 16 May 2023“ (A summary of FY23 SCSS#8 hybrid seminar entitled “What if? Russian Variables, Inflection Points and Game Changers?” at SCSS Workshop II) have been very supportive in the preparation of the paper. For the EU and its partners in the region to support the most desirable outcomes and mitigate the worst considering all scenarios discussed in the paper includes following key take-aways: 1. Relationships and cooperation matter 2. Security guarantees matter

‘Hybrid war’, military humanitarianism, and epistemic friction. Framing illegalised migration on the Polish-Belarusian border

ABSTRACT This article aims to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon of the ‘humanitarian border’ in its specific local context of Polish nationalism and the use of patriotic sentiments to justify violence at the border. The intensification of asylum-seeker migration from Asia and Africa on the EU's eastern border, triggered by the Lukashenka regime since the summer of 2021, was quickly dubbed as ‘hybrid war’, enabling the Polish government to take decisive military action against border crossers. The justification for this violence became both the patriotic duty, expressed in national idioms, and the discursively produced humanitarian concern for refugees whose lives and health were threatened precisely by the harshness of border controls. The labelling of repression and violence as the heroism and care of the Polish uniformed services, present both in the discursive framework of the description of the ‘crisis’ by the government media and in the cooperation of border guards with humanitarian actors, has become a specific form of ‘epistemic borderwork’. The grassroots solidarity movement that opposes these hegemonic discourses seeks to create counter-narratives highlighting the state's illegal actions and the refugees’ right to freedom of movement.

Regional Differentiation of Selected States of the Eastern Wing of the EU at the NUTS 2 Level in Relation to Rural Regions

This article analyzes the current topic of regional disparities in the EU member states. The aim of the present study is to assess the regional disparities in the selected countries, as well as to identify the dynamics of the existing disparities in regional averages at the level of NUTS 2 statistical administrative units. The framework of the text is narrowed down to a regional analysis of seven selected countries of the EU's eastern wing (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia). The text also highlights the position of rural areas and their role in the regional balance of the countries. The methodological approach is grounded mainly in the analysis of the development of disparities based on the analysis of empirical statistical data for the period 2001 to 2021, as well as on the assessment of the main features and trends of regional differentiation. To test convergence, the results of the coefficient of variation of GDP per capita in PPP were compared. The research showed the existence of significant differences in the economic development of the regions and different convergence tendencies. According to the results obtained, the countries studied were divided into three groups. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania and Slovakia recorded the fastest pace of internal balance, with the Czech Republic and Bulgaria showing the smallest regional differences at NUTS 2 level. The second group of countries is represented by Poland and Slovenia, which have seen minimal changes in internal differentiation, while both countries are the least internally diversified in the group of seven countries examined. Hungary was the only country with an increase in regional disparities in the period under review, while Slovakia was one of the countries with the largest internal differences between regions. There is scope for future research to continue to monitor the evolution of convergence, including the impact of recent trends.

Variations in the costs of atrial fibrillation: a longitudinal study across 27 European and Central Asian countries

Abstract Background/Introduction For many conditions, disease complications are the main driver of care costs. Atrial fibrillation (AF) – the commonest manifestation of cardiac arrhythmia – increases the risk of stroke and coronary heart disease, both of which are costly. Although the clinical burden of AF is widely documented, it is unknown to what extent AF-related complications contribute to healthcare costs and if these costs vary across countries. Purpose To assess the individual patient healthcare costs associated with AF-related complications and their variation across 27 European and Central Asian countries. Methods We used data from the European Society of Cardiology’s Atrial Fibrillation General Registry, a prospective, multinational registry of 10,249 atrial fibrillation patients from 27 countries with two-years of annual follow-up. Information on patients’ clinical characteristics, healthcare visits, as well as diagnostic and interventional procedures were collected at each visit. Atrial fibrillation related complications were angina, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), thromboembolic events, haemorrhagic events, and new onset or worsening heart failure. All healthcare resource use (inpatient stays, outpatient visits, and medications) were costed using 2019 UK unit costs to better assess variations in overall resource use across countries. We used panel data methods to assess the association of AF-related complications and healthcare costs and resource use. The models were adjusted for patients’ clinical and sociodemographic characteristics, prior medication use and geographical location. Results Over the follow-up period, 745 (8%) patients had an AF-related complication at 12-months and 477 (6%) at 24-months. Of the total 1,222 complications, the most common AF-related complication was new onset or worsening heart failure which occurred in 567 (3%) patients with complications. Overall, angina (£2,629, 95% CI: 1869 to 3361) and haemorrhagic events (£2,549, £2,199 to £2,900) incurred the highest cost, whereas non-stable myocardial infarction (£1,367, £687 to £2,048) incurred the least additional cost. We found significant regional variation. Costs of angina in Eastern EU and in non-EU former Soviet republics were, respectively, £1,362 (-£2,262 to -£461) and £1,416 (-£2,571 to -£261) lower than in Western Europe. Whereas costs in Southern EU and Northern EU countries were £721 (-£2,629 to £1,186) and £344 (-£1,460 to £ 674) lower than in Western Europe. Conclusions Although disease complications are costly in all countries, notable differences were observed across countries. These differences were driven by fewer investigations, clinic visits, and ER admissions. Our results, therefore, highlight the regional variations in resource use patterns across countries, limiting the generalisability of country-specific economic evaluations to other jurisdictions.

The Eastern Neighbours and EU Security Policy: A Differentiated Integration Perspective

The EU’s decision to grant Ukraine and Moldova a candidate country status and the recognition of Georgia’s European perspective in June 2022 has significant effects for both the EU’s enlargement and security and defence policies. So far, ‘hard’ security issues have played little role in the framing of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) and the Association Agreements (AAs) with Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia. Their full integration into EU security and defence arrangements will thus require considerable strategy-making and implementation efforts. This article discusses the extent to which existing external Differentiated Integration (DI) constellations can be seen as ‘building blocks’ for Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia’s prospective full integration into the EU’s security and defence architecture. It is shown that, in legal and practical terms, such DI constellations are conducive to the deepening of these countries’ integration with the EU in the security and defence domain. From the political viewpoint, the focus on DI with the new accession countries may, however, be (mis)used as a substitute for fullscale integration into the EU security and defence architecture. We, nonetheless, suggest several pilot domains that can be used to test the limits of new accession countries’ DI with the Union. EU security and defence policy, EU enlargement policy, accession, European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), Russia’s war against Ukraine, European Defence Agency, European Defence Fund, Permanent Structured Cooperation

Exploring the Intrinsic Factors Influencing Return on Assets: A Case Study of the Hotel Industry in Selected EU Countries

Purpose: The main aim of this study was to determine the intrinsic factors (total equity, trade receivable turnover, working capital turnover, long term debt, current ratio, debt to total assets ratio, debt to equity ratio, net sales revenue trend, total operating revenue trend, shareholders' equity trend, cash to total assets, current liabilities to total liabilities) that influence the financial performance of the Hotel Industry in select Central and Eastern European Union countries. Return on Assets (ROA) was used in this study as measure of financial performance. Design/methodology/approach: The paper uses panel data fixed effects model to examine dependent variable ROA as measure of the financial performance of select Tourism and Leisure Industry companies from Central and Eastern EU member states. The intrinsic factors were applied as independent variables. The applied panel data fixed effects model in the study was utilised to determine the impact of the intrinsic factors on financial performance. The data were obtained from EMIS data base. Overall data encompassed 614 companies from select eight Central and Eastern EU member states for the period 2015-2022. Findings: The model performed in this study discovered that intrinsic factors including total equity, trade receivable turnover, current ratio, debt to total assets ratio, as well as cash to total assets had a significant impact on the ROA. Total equity, current ratio, cash to total assets have positive impact as opposed to the trade receivable turnover debt to total asset, while years 2020 and 2021 had negative impact on the ROA. Research limitations/implications: This study was limited just on the select eight central and eastern European Union countries; moreover, the database EMIS used for this study lacks certain variables that are frequently used in similar studies. Result confirmed the importance of intrinsic factors and their influence on the financial performance of the leisure industry. Originality/value: This study contributes to the existing body of theory on financial performance through research on the new practitioners’ perception of the intrinsic factors relative to financial performance. There are very few empirical studies which examine financial performance variables in the Central and Eastern European leisure industry. Consequently, this study aims to bridge the gap between the available literature and body of research.

Pollution and electricity price in the EU Central and Eastern European countries: a sectoral approach.

Pollution and energy crisis are actual issues in Europe, including the EU Central and Eastern European states. In this context, the objective of this paper is to assess the impact of economic growth and electricity prices for non-household consumers on pollution. The empirical findings reveal the U pattern for energy industry and inverted U pattern for manufacturing in the period 2007-2021 in the EU countries from Central and Eastern Europe. Renewable energy consumption reduces the CO2 and GHG emissions in energy industry. FDI and electricity prices determine the reduction in GHG and CO2 emissions in both sectors. These results are the basis for policy recommendations.

Do cultural differences affect the quality of financial reporting in the EU? An analysis of Western EU countries vis a vis Eastern EU countries

PurposeThis study aims to examine the impact of national culture on classification shifting in Eastern European Member States of EU Eastern European countries (EEU) vis-à-vis the Western Member States of EU (WEU). The EEU provides a unique sample to study the quality of financial reporting that the authors measure with classification shifting given that for more than five decades they were following the model of a centrally planned economy, where market-based financial reporting was absent. Yet, the EEU transitioned to a market-based economy and completed its accession to the EU.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a panel data set of firm year observations from 1996 and 2020 that covers the full transition of EEU. This empirical analysis is based on fixed effects panel regression analysis where the authors report a plethora of identifications.FindingsThis study finds classification shifting in the EEU countries since their transition to the market-based economy, though they have no long record of market-based financial reporting. This study also notices that cultural factors are associated with classification shifting across all Member States of the EU. This study further examines the impact of interactions between cultural characteristics and special items and reveal variability between WEU and EEU. As part of the robustness analysis, this study also tests the impact of culture on real earnings management measures for both WEU vs EEU, confirming the variability of the impact of culture on earnings management.Research limitations/implicationsFuture research could explore the role of religion differences in WEU vis-à-vis EEU states, as they are also subject to cultural differences.Practical implicationsThe findings are important for regulators, external monitors and investors, as they show that cultural factors affect earnings management with some variability across countries in the EU, and they should be acknowledged in policymaking.Social implicationsThe findings show that cultural differences between EEU and the “old” Member States of the EU could explain classification shifting.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that sheds light on the impact of national culture on classification shifting in EEU of EU vis-à-vis the “old” WEU of EU.

Civil liability regime for AI-powered decision support systems in EU's Eastern Partnership – Ukrainian case

Civil liability regime for AI-powered decision support systems in EU's Eastern Partnership – Ukrainian case

Hepatitis A notifications in the EU/EEA, 2010-2019: what can we learn from case reporting to the European Surveillance System?

BackgroundEuropean Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) countries annually report hepatitis A (HepA) notifications to The European Surveillance System (TESSy).AimTo describe EU/EEA HepA notifications from 2010 to 2019 and identify infection drivers and surveillance improvements.MethodsWe analysed demographic, clinical and transmission information of HepA confirmed cases from TESSy. We stratified countries by population susceptibility profile and performed time-series analysis to describe trends in notification rates, sex distribution and travel history.ResultsTwenty-nine EU/EEA countries reported 139,793 HepA cases. Six eastern EU countries reported >60% of these cases. EU/EEA notification rate during the study period was 3.2 cases per 100,000 population (range 2.7-5.6). Notifications peaked in 2014 and 2017, with marked differences in case demographic characteristics. Notification trends varied across different country susceptibility groups. In 2017, the proportion of males (74%) and case median age (31 years) increased steeply, while no changes occurred in 2014. Travel history showed seasonal case peaks following the summer. More than 47,000 hospitalisations were reported. Annual case fatality was < 0.2% for all years. Information on travel history, hospitalisation, death and mode of transmission was suboptimal.DiscussionApart from some countries in its east, the EU/EEA is characterised by low HepA incidence baseline and susceptible to recurrent large cross-border outbreaks. Analysis of European surveillance data highlighted the need for stronger prevention policies for eastern EU countries, men who have sex with men and travellers. Improving surveillance data-quality will enhance knowledge on food-borne, and travel-related exposures to inform more effective and tailored regional prevention policies.

State Aid Impact on Central and Eastern Europe Economies

State aid is a fairly common phenomenon in the European Union, and, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of companies receiving state aid has even increased. However, scientific research confirms that, depending on the macroeconomic, political and social situation as well as on industry specifics, state aid can have a dual effect - positive or negative. To date, there is no clear answer to the question of what impact and under which conditions state aid has on national economies in the long run. This article contributes to filling a gap in the literature because to date researchers have focused on the cases of large, heavily populated European Union countries, but the research into the impact of state aid on the Central and Eastern EU economies, where the level of state aid as percentage of GDP is higher than the EU average, is still scarce. In addition, the mixed results obtained in previous studies caused confusion over the effects of state aid and its relevance for economic development. In our research, we applied correlation analysis, Granger causality test, ARDL, PTR models and evaluation of multipliers for the analysis of the panel data set representing 11 Central and Eastern EU countries over a 20-year period (from 2000 to 2019). We found that state aid does not promote economic development in most Сentral and Eastern EU countries under certain conditions in the long term. This paper contributes to a deeper understanding of the state aid-economic development relationship at the national level in the Central and Eastern Europe and has implications for policy makers.

Political opportunities, not migration flows: why the EU cooperates more broadly on migration with some neighbouring states

ABSTRACT Why is the EU cooperating more on migration issues with some third countries than others? What explains this variation? In recent years, the EU has intensified its institutionalised cooperation with third countries in the area of migration, although to different degrees. The extent of migration cooperation is measured in this article by conducting a fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis. It looks at the conditions that have triggered more or less cooperation in 23 countries of the Eastern and Southern EU neighbourhood up to 2015, a key moment in the external relations. Theoretically, the article draws on five factors to explain the different levels of cooperation: (1) migration flows; (2) the state of democracy in the partner country; (3) existing relations with the EU; (4) economic dependence of the partner country on the EU; (5) administrative capacities of the partner country. The article advances the argument that a third country’s existing relations with the EU or the state of democracy in combination with a high level of economic dependence on the EU are the key factors for understanding why some third countries cooperate more. The number of migrants originating from or transiting through a third country is only of secondary importance.