East Coast Ports Research Articles

Trends in Global Port Operations and Their Influence on Port Labor

The port industry has undergone substantial structural changes during the past 15 years. The emergence of global terminal operators, global oligopolistic market consolidation, vertical and horizontal integration of liner shipping, and the new structure of global production networks in relation to emerging technologies are only a few of the factors that have fundamentally influenced port labor. Ports are no longer isolated functional nodes of the transportation chain, but are a fundamental component of a seamless supply chain, working along with satellite and inland terminals. At the same time, marine terminals sometimes function as extended warehouses, providing flexible virtual inventory. These developments have created substantial challenges to port labor, including the need for upgraded working skills, enhanced productivity, and the ability to adopt flexible working conditions. Unionized port labor has been traditionally highly inflexible in changing attitudes and adapting to new port work practices. In contrast, the explosion of port service demand in emerging economies, particularly in East Asia, was followed by an unprecedented increase in port productivity, coupled by flexibility in port working practices that cannot be accepted by unionized port labor in the United States and Europe. This paper examines some of the current challenges and implications for the U.S. East Coast port labor force—the International Longshoremen's Association—due to global developments in international trade and global port operations. It proposes that future research incorporate a broad range of disciplines in order to understand the competitive environment facing longshoremen better.

Water Transport in the Industrial Age

Manchester was a major centre of transport innovation in industrial Britain. Research has focused on the pioneer transport links with Liverpool, neglecting the town's extensive eastern canal network. This article analyses the commodities conveyed from 1800 to 1855 on the Rochdale Canal, the most heavily trafficked of the town's eastern waterways. It highlights the canal's importance in carrying corn to feed Lancashire's industrial work force as well as its role in transporting cotton textiles to east-coast ports and in supplying Manchester with building materials. The article also analyses the types of firm carrying goods on the canal and assesses the canal's importance in relation to Manchester's other major water routes.

Cargo Votes with its Rudder: The Geographic Mobility of Shipping and the Role of Labor

The globalization of production and the geographic dispersion of economic activity have elevated the importance of the transportation and logistics sectors of the economy. One sector in particular that has experienced significant expansion is maritime transport and container shipping. As the cargo has become increasingly “discretionary” such that it can conceivably be transported through any port that allows intermodal access to the hinterland, the industry has become much more foot-loose vis-a-vis a particular port of entry. The enhanced mobility of the cargo results in more intense port competition. One particular place to observe and study this dynamic is in the port and terminal location decisions of shippers and shipping lines and the role of port authorities in attempting to attract these carriers to their facilities. In this paper the focus is on the role of labor, and labor relations, in such decisions. These issues will be studied in the context of the shift of container traffic from the West to the East coast of the United States and, as an illustrative case study, how these developments have played out for the East coast port of Jacksonville, Florida.

Strategic Interaction amongst Australia's East Coast Ports

Abstract Australia's principal container ports, located in its state capitals, are owned and operated by state authorities that largely return profits from port operations to state governments. Since they govern the volumes of trade in most merchandise, they command immense influence over the openness and flexibility of the national economy. In this study, we estimate the elasticities of substitution between container services of ports in Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. We also examine the pricing of port services to estimate the extent of their interaction, from which we derive conjectural variations parameters to assess the actual and potential levels of price collusion. The results confirm the conventional wisdom that the degree of substitution between the major east coast ports is small. While this highlights the possibility that these ports possess substantial market power, actual mark ups are considerably smaller than the predicted mark ups, suggesting that the ports' localised monopoly power is constrained by factors other than price competition.

Stephen Decatur: A Life Most Bold and Daring (review)

Stephen Decatur: A Life Most Bold and Daring. By Spencer Tucker. (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2005. Pp. xx, 245. Cloth, $32.95.)Stephen Decatur, Jr. (1779-1820) entered the newly established U.S. Navy as a midshipman in 1799, saw active service in the Quasi War with France, and was promoted to lieutenant in 1800. Later, in operations against Tripoli, he demonstrated great leadership ability. His men responded to the respectful treatment they received and were willing to die for him. When the frigate Philadelphia was captured and its crew imprisoned by the Tripolitanians, Decatur led a small band of volunteers who seized the ship and burned it to prevent its use against the Americans. The volunteers suffered no fatalities. For this action Decatur was promoted to captain. At the age of twenty-five, he was the youngest person ever to hold that rank in the history of the U.S. Navy. In 1806 he married Susan Wheeler of Norfolk and had a happy married life but there were no children.As the captain of the United States during the War of 1812 Decatur captured one of the best frigates in the Royal Navy after a battle. For this he was honored by Congress, the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania, and New York City. He also received $30,000 in prize money, the largest award to any captain in the war. When there was a concern that the British might capture New York City, Decatur worked with Robert Fulton to improve the defenses of the city and in the development of a submarine in an effort to break the British blockade of East Coast ports. In the frigate United States he eluded the blockaders but was later bottled up by them in New London, Connecticut. Near the end of the war he was again at sea in the frigate President and lost a battle with HMS Endymion. A subsequent court of inquiry vindicated his conduct.In 1815 he was given the command of a squadron and sent to the Mediterranean to deal with attacks on American commerce by Algiers. En route to his assignment, Decatur captured two Algerian warships. With the assistance of the local Swedish consul, who acted as an intermediary, and William Shaler, one of the U.S. appointed peace commissioners, Algiers was forced to accept a new treaty, pay reparations, end all tribute, and release all American captives. Tunis and Tripoli had also violated their treaties with the United States. They were forced to pay compensation and in the case of Tripoli to release ten Christian slaves. Decatur's actions ended interference with American commerce by the Barbary powers. …

A Case of the Vapors

With domestic refining capacity falling behind domestic demand, imports have taken on a new role: smoothing out any mismatches between gasoline supply and demand. Gasoline is sold on a worldwide spot market, and international refiners know that every gallon of gasoline will be bought by someone, somewhere. Some 40 percent of American gas imports now come from Western Europe. European refiners are looking to solve this problem by switching refining technologies. Hydrocracking, which is a high-pressure process that relies on hydrogen to saturate various products, will enable them to make more diesel from a given barrel of petroleum, and less gasoline. The change in American fuel standards has tilted the playing field for would-be exporters. The reduction in sulfur content has taken many refineries in South America out of the running as suppliers of gasoline to the United States. Until these refineries make the necessary upgrade, imports may be restricted to advanced, First World refineries, such as Total’s and Irving’s facilities. The EIA projects that Western Europe will remain a dominant exporter of gasoline to the United States for at least another decade due to its high-tech refineries and its proximity to East Coast ports.

Medieval Communication Routes through Longford and Roscommon and Their Associated Settlements

This paper explores the direction and context of medieval communication channels in the territory covered by the modern counties of Longford and Roscommon. The network consisted of roadways-both local and interregional-and water-based arteries. The landscape of the area dictated how people moved across the terrain. Large tracts of bog generated a need for trackways to provide access to good land trapped in the peat. The extensive water system centred on the Shannon facilitated travel to otherwise isolated places. The numerous islands contain the remains of secular and religious settlements. The roads identified as belonging to the regional network are plotted on a map of the area. This mapping shows that the main factors shaping the road network were the location of the ritual centre at Cruachain and the siting of religious establishments. Two major roads-the Slighe Assail and the Slighe Mhór-linked an otherwise isolated area to the east-coast ports and to English and continental markets. The relationship of the roads in particular to medieval settlement patterns is examined.

In the Line of Fire: The Library of University College Hull During World War II

During the Second World War the east coast port of Hull was subjected to repeated enemy attack from the air. The library of University College, Hull, was under constant threat of damage, and its rare books and manuscripts had to be moved elsewhere. The library itself naturally had to contend with financial restraint and staff shortages during a particularly difficult and dangerous period. That the library was able to keep operating, even though much of its stock had been dispersed, was due to the determination and endeavour of its Librarian, Agnes Cuming.

A Theoretical Basis for 19th-Century Changes to the Port of New York Imported Goods Auction

The completion of the Erie Canal traditionally receives primary credit for the rapid growth of trade through the Port of New York relative to trade through other East Coast ports. This credit ignores the dramatic increase in imports through New York prior to the completion of the canal. We examine an alternative explanation for this earlier growth. Specifically, in 1817, the New York legislature changed the law regarding auction of imports. In developing a theory to demonstrate the benefits of the new auction design, we give credence to claims that the change in the auction law contributed to New York's rapid growth.

Cargoes, Embargoes and Emissaries: The Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse, 1450-1510 (review)

Reviews 171 libraries. More importantly, these are all major articles in thefield,precious indeed for their impeccable references to primary sources and Forey's own, oft-stated opinion on the controversy or misinformation surrounding many of these questions. Anne Gilmour-Bryson Department of History University of Melbourne Fudge, John D., Cargoes, Embargoes and Emissaries: The Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse, 1450-1510, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1995; cloth; pp. xx, 265; R.R.P. US$60.00. While the general outlines of the history of the Hanse in the period in which it began its terminal decline are well known, the details of the bitter political in-fighting by which the main players endeavoured to maintain the upper hand have been less explored. Dr Fudge, through a detailed study of the largely unpublished formal archives of the states and territories involved, demonstrates the intricacies of the agreements entered into and the endemic problems which pirates of all nations created for such agreements. Raiding and looting in retaliation for perceived or actual wrongs, with or without a 'letter of marque', was commonplace, and monarchs and rulers without adequate permanent navies had little option but to employ as temporary gamekeepers those who were all too readily by nature poachers. The capture of the vital Hanseatic saltfleetin 1449 by English privateers was only the most spectacular of such encounters. Dr Fudge illuminates the internal dissensions which weakened the Hanse, particularly the hostility between Danzig and Lubeck, as well as Cologne's and Frankfurt's ambiguous position, which provided the English government with both problems and opportunities. As each English monarch sought to curb Hanseatic power while exploiting the potential of the London steelyard, the patterns of trade and trading routes slowly shifted. The breakdown of internal Hanseatic cohesion disrupted the boycotts imposed by the central diet so that Cologne maintained links to London at the expense of the other towns. The third party in all this wrangling was the L o w Countries, where too there was much disagreement between the different states, each of which had their own agreements with the English and the Hanse. Restrictions at Bruges 172 Reviews created opportunities for Antwerp; limitation or embargoes on trade in one state saw shippers moving en masse to another. In some places the English could trade cloth, in others only wool. For the merchants of England and the Hanse, keeping abreast of the current state of politics as it affected their trading goods was a critical element of commercial success. Even in years when warfare did not cut off all the legal trading routes, a minor shift in political agreement could be disastrous. The confiscation of ship and contents in such circumstances was to be expected and the process of recovery—if recovery was possible—was slow and uncertain. Given the turbulence of the period, which moved between open fighting and acrimonious trade wars, it is remarkable that the trade routes and trade goods continued to flow with as little disruption as they did. Dr Fudge painstakingly documents from such records as survive the passage of products and ships and for thefirsttime shows how the transition from the medieval Hanseatic period to the Early M o d e m period of open seas in the Baltic and North Sea came about. H e shows the already specialised role fulfilled by some of the English east coast ports and the very different mercantile structures which had evolved to meet these needs. This helps explain the otherwise mysterious differences in their fortunes during the period. This is a very readable book which, while making no concessions to popularising, gives a lucid picture of mercantile experience in the North Sea in the period. The changing relationship between merchants and shippers is teased out of the partial evidence available. Fudge's account of the embassies which passed between the states, their composition, powers and diplomatic effectiveness, casts new light on international relations at the time. Structured chronologically, the book makes the sequence of events, which would otherwise be confusing, intelligible. I look forward to reading further work on this subject from Dr Fudge. Sybil M Jack History Department University of...

A Medieval Semiotic: Reference and Representation in John of St. Thomas' Theory of Signs (review)

172 Reviews created opportunities for Antwerp; limitation or embargoes on trade in one state saw shippers moving en masse to another. In some places the English could trade cloth, in others only wool. For the merchants of England and the Hanse, keeping abreast of the current state of politics as it affected their trading goods was a critical element of commercial success. Even in years when warfare did not cut off all the legal trading routes, a minor shift in political agreement could be disastrous. The confiscation of ship and contents in such circumstances was to be expected and the process of recovery—if recovery was possible—was slow and uncertain. Given the turbulence of the period, which moved between open fighting and acrimonious trade wars, it is remarkable that the trade routes and trade goods continued to flow with as little disruption as they did. Dr Fudge painstakingly documents from such records as survive the passage of products and ships and for thefirsttime shows how the transition from the medieval Hanseatic period to the Early M o d e m period of open seas in the Baltic and North Sea came about. H e shows the already specialised role fulfilled by some of the English east coast ports and the very different mercantile structures which had evolved to meet these needs. This helps explain the otherwise mysterious differences in their fortunes during the period. This is a very readable book which, while making no concessions to popularising, gives a lucid picture of mercantile experience in the North Sea in the period. The changing relationship between merchants and shippers is teased out of the partial evidence available. Fudge's account of the embassies which passed between the states, their composition, powers and diplomatic effectiveness, casts new light on international relations at the time. Structured chronologically, the book makes the sequence of events, which would otherwise be confusing, intelligible. I look forward to reading further work on this subject from Dr Fudge. Sybil M Jack History Department University of Sydney Furton, Edward James, A Medieval Semiotic: Reference and Representation in John of St. Thomas' Theory of Signs (History and Language, 4), N e w York, Peter Lang, 1995; board; pp. x, 201; R.R.P. $US58.00. This book is an admirable commentary on and interpretation of a classic Reviews 173 work, or, rather, parts thereof—the theory of signs developed by the Dominican, John of St. Thomas, in his Cursus Philosophicus, a commentary on the Aristotelian corpus and a text which saw publication sixteen times between the years 1631 and 1930. The theory of signs expounded by the Renaissance scholar expresses the abiding confidence in the capacity of language and (Christian) thought to reflect the real, a view which was the conviction and spiritual certitude of the vast majority in the Europe of his days (1589-1644). The m o d e m work is described by its o w n theologian author as 'a partial antidote to the current spate of exceptionally abstruse and pessimistic estimates of what can be hoped for concerning the accuracy and truth of human discourse' (p. 3). John of St. Thomas had two principal recommendations to combat the then contemporary spiritual malaise: firstly the demonstration that language can accurately represent the real; and, secondly, that this occurs because of the objectivity of human thought. If language is but some form of convention, then w e live in a shadow world, a partial reality against which Plato had warned us in The Republic. Thus he, John of St. Thomas, was concerned ultimately to show language to be a natural phenomenon and a force (neutral and spiritual) which presupposes the higher abstractive power of the human intellect and the general faithfulness of thinking. In thefirstof the four major sections Furton treats of the notions of the nature of the linguistic sign held by John of St. Thomas and Ferdinand de Saussure. The latter's views are shown to be similar to those of various opponents of John who held the sign to be rational rather than real and wished to prove that concepts themselves are purely rational. These notions were rebutted by John who had written...

Oeuvrecatalogus

AbstractThe seventeenth-century, probably Flemish, artist Abraham Casembroot (Bruges? before or in Ι593 - Messina Ι658) spent the latter half of his life in Sicily. His entire extant oeuvre was produced there, which is probably why he is so little known in the Netherlands. The painter lived in the east-coast port of Messina, where for the last nine years of his life he held the post of consul for the Republic of the United Netherlands. Some of the bulletins he sent to the States General in his consular capacity are kept in the Rijksarchief at The Hague. So are the documents which confirm his appointment in Ι649 and that of his successor and thus establish Ι658 as the year of Casembroot's death. Information about his life can be found in biographies of Messina artists. The most detailed account is by Francesco Susinno in his Vite de' pittori messinesi of Ι724, although later vite of Messina artists also devote a comparatively large amount of space to Casembroot. As a painter he was evidently held in considerable esteem in Messina, where he had five local pupils. Casembroot specialized in harbour and marine views and tempests; according to the vite his paintings were much in demand in both Sicily and the Netherlands. The well-known seventeenth-century collection amassed by Don Antonio Ruffo of Messina boasted no fewer than ten works by Casembroot, one of which was very likely the large canvas The Swordfish Catch, now in the Museo di San Martino in Naples. Incidentally, a hitherto unpublished document reveals that one of Casembroot's consular duties was to deal with the ship that in all probability had on board Rembrandt's Aristotle, commissioned by Ruffo. It is remarkable that currently only four authenticated paintings by Casembroot are known, plus a fifth which is attributed to him on convincing grounds. His imaginary harbours resemble those by less well-known Netherlandish painters in Italy such as Cornelis de Wael and notably Adriaen van der Cabel. For a long time the latter was thought to have been responsible for four large series of sketchbook drawings with Sicilian studies which were in the Kupferstichkabinett in Berlin until the I9305 and subsequently scattered. In I973 Hans Mielke observed numerous stylistic correspondences between sheets from this former Berlin series and a preliminary drawing by Casembroot for an etching. There is also a stylistic resemblance to other traceable sheets from the former Berlin series (a considerable number of which are now in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge), some of which have been identified as preliminary studies for etchings by Casembroot. Consequently, three of the four Berlin series of sketchbooks previously attributed to Van der Cabel must now be established as Casembroot's work. Compared with Casembroot's paintings, his etchings and drawings exhibit more obvious personal stylistic characteristics, which Mielke had already observed in the nervous lines and the distinctive manner in which the small human figures are depicted; this enables reliable attributions to be made now. Mielke also demonstrated that Van der Cabel made use of drawings by Casembroot for his own etchings, and he is quite likely to have owned drawings by Casembroot. Casembroot's best-known work is a series of etchings of views of Messina and the surrounding countryside which he dedicated to the collector Lucas van Uffelen. Preliminary drawings for this series and for an authentic painting have survived. Casembroot utilized the drawings he did from nature in his sketchbooks as preliminary studies for etchings and paintings. Surviving sheets show small figures engaged in various activities, topographical sketches and accurate studies of local ships. The artistic quality of Casembroot's oeuvre is not particularly high. Its current significance is largely due to the topographical depictions of Messina and its environs, which look completely different today as the result of natural disasters. Despite his lengthy sojourn in Sicily, Casembroot remained a recognizably northern painter. His subject-matter displayed typically Dutch features which were uncommon in Messina, where local painters generally confined themselves to history pieces. With his harbour and sea views Casembroot seems to have discovered a gap in the market, which may account for his success in Messina.

:The Maritime Trade of the East Anglian Ports 1550-1590

This book offers an account of the inland and foreign trade of East Anglian ports, from King's Lynn to Ipswich, during the reign of Elizabeth I. Drawing on state papers, customs documents and other original sources, it gives a general picture of the economic life of the region. The survey is not confined to general statements, statistical tables or movements of commodities, but includes sketches of individual merchants, pirates and smugglers. The author argues that the significance of provincial trade at this time has been undervalued in comparison with that of London, and that the East coast ports have been neglected by historians in comparison with those of the West Country. The author was winner of the Royal Historical Society's Whitfield Prize.

The Migration Link between Cois Fharraige and Portland, Maine, 1880s to 1920s

From the 1880s onwards, the west coast of Ireland — particularly the Congested Districts — formed a major source area of emigration to North America. This paper focuses on part of that outflow from Cois Fharraige. west of Galway city, which ended in Portland, Maine. A distinctive pattern of immigration characterised these Irish-speaking migrants in this relatively small east coast port, with occupational specialisation in longshore work for men and domestic service for women. An analysis of the migration link between these two coastal locations provides a useful insight into aspects of the diaspora of Irish-speakers.

Competitive status of US ports in the mid-1980s

Competition among US ports has heightened significantly in the 1980s, in large part due to the rising importance of intermodal transportation systems. This paper measures the shares of national waterborne imports and exports for the eight largest US ports and their changes between 1985 and 1987. It examines the decline of East-Coast ports, especially New York, and the ascendancy of their West-Coast counterparts, notably Los Angeles and Seattle, on the basis of 42 commodity groups. Finally, it documents the minibridge and reverse minibridge systems as they pertain to the emerging pattern of winners and losers.

Evaluating dredging and offshore loading locations for U.S. coal exports using the local logistics system

The formulation and use of a mixed integer mathematical programming location-allocation model, the Coal Logistics System (COLS), is presented in this study. COLS is used to evaluate the potential for reducing water-borne coal transportation costs, and concomitantly the costs of delivering coal to European markets. This cost reduction is accomplished through the use of supercolliers which would require the dredging of channels at selected ports or the use of offshore loading sites at East and Gulf Coast ports or both. The model developed and the analysis presented in this paper are intended to aid in the determination of the location and extent of these activities, and to indicate the size of the potential reduction in the costs of U.S. export coal. In order to be able to accommodate these deeper draft vessels at East and Gulf Coast ports, expensive improvements would need to be undertaken which may include the deepening of harbor channels to the depths required for 120 000 dead weight ton (dwt) or larger supercolliers. Since dredging requires large initial investments and has significant long-term maintenance costs, excess capacity could represent an inefficient use of both U.S. revenues and the ports' own funds. The use of offshore loading moorings to permit the “topping off” of supercolliers by self-unloading colliers at the deepwater sections of harbor channels has been proposed as a way of reducing trans-ocean transportation costs and avoiding the large investments and time delays associated with dredging activities. The Coal Logistics System was modified and extended to enable the evaluation of these two port improvement options to be undertaken in a consistent and realistic manner.

Deep-draft dredging of U.S. coal ports: A cost-benefit analysis

This article discusses whether U.S. society should invest in large-scale coal port development and examines specifically financing the deep-draft dredging of coal ports on the East and/or Gulf Coasts (Baltimore, Hampton Roads, Mobile, and New Orleans) so that fully loaded, large coal-carrying colliers can export coal to Western Europe. By assuming a society-wide perspective, no costs and benefits are attributed to various parties. Although the multifaceted nature of the coal port issue is acknowledged, the core of this study is a large number of different simulations. Each simulation “optimizes” the United States-Western Europe coal trade for a given demand, ocean transportation cost structure, and cost of capital. This relatively simple model focuses on the key tradeoff: the cost of dredging versus lower ocean transportation costs. The study supports those recommending caution in coal port development. The most striking conclusion is the robustness of two solutions - no dredging or dredge only Hampton Roads - depending on the assumptions. Our conclusions also generally do not support simultaneously dredging all deep-draft options, the concurrent dredging of more than one port, or dredging either of the Gulf ports before the two East Coast ports.

The Development of Canada's Five Leading National Ports

Montréal, Québec, Saint-Jean et Halifax, sur la côte orientale, ainsi que Vancouver sur la cote occidentale, ont été les ports de marchandises diverses les plus importants du Canada pendant la plus grande partie de l'histoire du pays. A différentes époques, il y a eu entre eux des relations aussi bien de complémentarité que de concurrence et l'importance relative de chaque port a varié selon les changements de la technologie du transport et les modifications des courants commerciaux. Avant la Confédération, le port de Québec occupait la première place, mais il la céda rapidement à Montréal quand le vapeur supplanta le bateau à voile et que la voie navigable du Saint-Laurent fut élargie et approfondie. Montréal a dominé le commerce maritime au Canada pendant plusieurs dizaines d'années, jusqu'à ce que l'essor récent de Vancouver finisse par mettre fin à cette prépondérance. Pendant leur longue histoire, les cinq ports ont réussi à survivre à des périodes d'adversité et à garder leur importance et leurs rôles respectifs dans le commerce maritime national, malgré l'apparition de nombreux nouveaux concurrents.

Spawning migration of moki (Latridopsis ciliaris) off eastern New Zealand

Abstract Commercial fishing statistics for 4 east coast ports, Gisborne, Napier, Wellington, and Kaikoura, were analysed for seasonal changes in moki abundance. Moki from commercial catches at Gisborne and Kaikoura were sampled for sex, body and gonad weight, and reproductive status. A small‐scale tagging programme was carried out at Kaikoura. Commercial catches of moki were strongly seasonal, with abundance peaks occurring in August‐September at Gisborne, June‐July and September‐October at Napier, September‐October at Wellington, and May‐June and October at Kaikoura. Moki were resting or developing reproductively in May‐June at Kaikoura, ripe and spawning in August‐September at Gisborne, and spent in October at Kaikoura. At Kaikoura the sex ratio in catches was 1: 1 during both abundance peaks, but at Gisborne males outnumbered females 4: 1 in early August, with the sex ratio declining to 1: 1 by mid September. Moki eggs are smooth and spherical with a non‐segmented yolk and a single oil drop. They can be distinguished from copper moki (L. forsteri) eggs on the basis of oil drop diameter. Moki tagged at Kaikoura in May 1979 were recaptured at Gisborne (2 fish), Napier (1), and Kaikoura (9). One of the fish recaptured at Gisborne had travelled 540 km in 108 days (5.0 km/day) and the Napier fish 430 km in 65 days (6.6 km/day). Recaptures at Kaikoura showed that both peaks of abundance comprised the same fish. The results suggest the existence of a single stock of moki on the east coast of New Zealand. The fish make an annual spawning migration, swimming north from Kaikoura in May‐June, reaching Gisborne to spawn in August‐September, and then swimming south, passing Kaikoura again in October.

John Johnsone’s an Confortable Exhortation of Our Mooste Holy Christen Faith and her Frutes: An Early Example of Scots Lutheran Piety

On account of the spread ‘in diverse countries’ of the heresies of Luther the Scottish parliament enacted in 1525 that ‘na manner of persouns, strangears that hapnis to arrive with their schippis within ony part of this realm bring with thaim ony bukes or workes of the said Lutheris, his disciples or servandes, desputt or reherss his heresies or opunzeounns bot geif it be to the confusion thereof and that be clerkis in the sculis alainerlie, under the pane of escheting of their schippis and gudes and putting of their persons in presounn. And that this act be publist and proclamit out throw this realme at all ports and burrowis of the same’. Twenty six months later this act was extended to include all the king’s lieges who were ‘assistars to sic opunzeouns’. The act of parliament of 1525 expressed the nation’s concern: it does not specifically state that Luther’s writings had already been finding their way into the Scottish east coast ports, but the extension of the act in the following year to include the king’s lieges, makes it clear that heresy was beginning to take hold. By the spring of another year Lutheranism had its first Scottish martyr, the young Patrick Hamilton, titular abbot of Fern, former student at Paris, Louvain, St Andrews, and Marburg. Support for the heretical views could not, despite oppression and persecution, be held in check. Within a decade of the passing of the act, parliament found it necessary not only to have it re-enacted but extended still farther. None was to ‘have, use, kepe or consele ony bukes of the said heretic, or contenand their doctrine and opinions bot that they deliver the samin to the ordinaries within xl days’.