Soil Earthworm Research Articles

Tolerance of earthworms in soil contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

Pyrene is a very resistant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with four benzene rings that survives in the environment. This study was aimed at investigating the tolerance of earthworms in soil contaminated with pyrene. The studies were performed by employing earthworms gathered from shady regions adjacent to sewage ponds as pyrene degraders to eradicate pyrene from the soil. Numerous factors affecting pyrene degradation efficiency were explored, including the effects of contaminant concentration, earthworm and soil ration, and soil condition. The highest pyrene removal (31.2%) was shown by earthworms in the condition of soil mixed with cow dung. Pyrene decomposition was inhibited during soil sterilization due to the absence of soil microorganisms and indigenous pyrene-degrading bacteria. Nonetheless, earthworms are suitable for use as pyrene degraders in contaminated soil.

Toxicity evaluation of pyraclostrobin exposure in farmland soils and co-exposure with nZnO to Eisenia fetida

Although the toxicity of pyraclostrobin (PYRA) to earthworms in artificial soil is well known, the toxicity of PYRA in farmland soils is yet to be explored in detail. Additionally, with more zinc oxide nanoparticles (nZnO) entering the soil environment, the risk of PYRA co-exposure with nZnO is increasing alarmingly. However, toxicity caused by this co-exposure of PYRA and nZnO is still unknown. Therefore, we assessed the biomarkers responses to reveal the toxicity of PYRA (0.1, 1, 2.5 mg/kg) on earthworms in farmland soils (black soil, fluvo-aquic soil, and red clay) and evaluated the biomarkers responses of Eisenia fetida exposed to PYRA (0.5 mg/kg)/PYRA+nZnO (10 mg/kg). Moreover, transcriptomic analysis was performed on E. fetida exposed to PYRA/PYRA+nZnO for 28 days to reveal the mechanism of genotoxicity. The Integrated Biomarker Responses (IBR) showed PYRA induced more severe oxidative stress and damage to E. fetida in farmland soils than that in artificial soil. The oxidative stress and damage induced by PYRA+nZnO were greater than that induced by PYRA. Transcriptomic analysis showed that PYRA and PYRA+nZnO significantly altered gene expression of both biological processes and molecular functions. These results provided toxicological data for PYRA exposure in three typical farmland soils and co-exposure with nZnO.

Green Corridors May Sustain Habitats for Earthworms in A Partially Converted Grassland

Permanent grasslands provide a healthy and undisturbed environment. We investigated how mulching altered the soil physicochemical parameters, earthworm abundance, biomass, species composition and vegetation cover compared to grassland and cultivated alfalfa field. Microplots (2 × 2 m) were mulched with either weed control fabric (WF) alone or WF combined with straw (WF + S) on a grassland to grow tomato in Ősagárd (Nógrád county, Hungary) between 2018 and 2021. We had two other microhabitats: a conventionally cultivated alfalfa field (CA) and grassland (GR). We measured soil parameters (physical: soil moisture content (SMC), soil penetration resistance (SPR); chemical: pH, soil organic matter; and biological: earthworm abundance, biomass, species composition and vegetation). SMC was significantly higher on covered plots (WF; WF + S) compared to CA and GR. SPR values were the highest in CA and GR at 20 cm depth. The abundance and biomass of earthworms were the highest in GR and lowest in CA in all seasons. Plant abundance was highly influenced by season and habitat. Despite the higher compaction and lower SMC figures, grass vegetation still provided a more suitable environment for earthworms than mulched plots (WF, WF + S). Therefore, where there is agricultural production on grassland, we suggest leaving uncultivated and uncovered patches as biodiversity corridors.

Investigating Lead Bioavailability in a Former Shooting Range by Soil Microanalyses and Earthworms Tests

Shooting ranges are among the major anthropogenic sources of Pb contamination in soils worldwide. Once they have reached the soil, bullet residues can have different fates according to the characteristics of the soil environment, leading to the formation of different Pb weathering products whose stability is crucial for Pb accessibility to soil biota. In this study, Pb availability in a former polluted shooting range was investigated with a combination of conventional soil analyses, X-ray microanalyses and assays with the bio-indicator earthworm Eisenia andrei. Chemical extractions evidenced a rather low mobility of soil Pb, while micro-X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (µXRF) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with microanalysis (SEM-EDX) showed the formation of a weathering crust around Pb-containing bullet slivers dispersed within the soil. Such crusts consisted of a mixture of orthophosphates, including the highly insoluble Cl-pyromorphite. Furthermore, no acute toxicity effects and low Pb concentration values were measured in earthworm tissues (94.9 mg kg−1) and coelom fluids (794 µg L−1) after 28 days of exposure to the polluted soil. These results allow us to assume that most of the Pb in the shooting range soil underwent stabilization processes promoted by phosphatic fertilization. The soil was in fact used for agriculture after being dismissed for firing activities. Such a combined approach can be applied to study Pb bioavailability in other shooting ranges or, more generally, in soils heavily polluted with Pb.

Interactive effects of metals and carbon nanotubes in a microcosm agrosystem

Agricultural soils are exposed to multiple contaminants through the use of agrochemicals or sewage sludge, introducing metals, nanomaterials and others. Among nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are known for their large surface area and adsorption capabilities, possibly modifying other element behavior. However, to date, very little is known about the impacts of such interactions in agrosystems. In this study, we aimed at understanding the transfer and toxicity of contaminants (Cd, Pb, Zn and CNTs) in microcosms including native soil bacteria, earthworms and lettuce. After a 6 week exposure, no effect of the addition of CNTs to metal contaminated soils was detected on bacterial concentration or earthworm growth. However, in lettuce, an interactive effect between CNTs and metals was highlighted: in the soil containing the highest metal concentrations the addition of 0.1 mg kg−1 CNTs led to a biomass loss (−22%) and a flavonoid concentration increase (+27%). In parallel, the addition of CNTs led to differential impacts on elemental uptake in lettuce leaves possibly related to the soil organic matter content. For earthworms, the addition of 10 mg kg−1 CNTs resulted in an increased body elemental transfer in the soil with the higher organic matter content (Pb: + 34% and Zn: + 25%).

The Effect of Monoculture, Crop Rotation Combinations, and Continuous Bare Fallow on Soil CO2 Emissions, Earthworms, and Productivity of Winter Rye after a 50-Year Period.

One of the main goals of the 21st century’s developing society is to produce the necessary amount of food while protecting the environment. Globally, particularly in Lithuania and other northern regions with similar climatic and soil conditions, there is a lack of data on the long-term effects of crop rotation under the current conditions of intensive farming and climate change. It has long been recognized that monocultures cause soil degradation compared to crop rotation. Research hypothesis: the long-term implementation of crop rotation makes a positive influence on the soil environment. The aim of our investigation was to compare the effects of a 50-year-long application of different crop rotations and monocultures on soil CO2 emissions, earthworms, and productivity of winter rye. Long-term stationary field experiments were established in 1966 at Vytautas Magnus University Experimental Station (54°53′ N, 23°50′ E). The study was conducted using intensive field rotation with row crops, green manure crop rotations, three-course rotation, and rye monoculture. Pre-crop had the largest impact on soil CO2 emissions, and more intensive soil CO2 emissions occurred at the beginning of winter rye growing season. Rye appeared not to be demanding in terms of pre-crops. However, its productivity decreased when grown in monoculture, and the optimal mineral fertilization remained lower than with crop rotation, but productivity remained stable.

Ecological Risk of Microplastic Toxicity to Earthworms in Soil: A Bibliometric Review

Ecological Risk of Microplastic Toxicity to Earthworms in Soil: A Bibliometric Review

A Concentric Approach Towards Environmental Hazard and Contemplation for Engrossing the Impact of Engineered Silver Nanoparticles on Soil Earthworms

A Concentric Approach Towards Environmental Hazard and Contemplation for Engrossing the Impact of Engineered Silver Nanoparticles on Soil Earthworms

Population characteristics and influencing factors of terrestrial earthworms in Qinling Mountains

Earthworms can have an important effect on a variety of processes that determine soil fertility and play a very important role in natural ecosystems. The biomass and density of earthworms in 4 different land utilize types in the Qinling mountains were investigated using the wet funnel method. The relationship between the characteristics of earthworm populations characteristics and environmental factors were analysed, and the significant differences in soil earthworm density (P < 0.05) and fresh weight (P < 0.05) were discovered under different land utilize types, and all showed the highest value in orchard land, followed by woodland and grassland, in addition, the lowest was discovered in cultivated land. In addition, Pearson correlation analysis indicate that soil earthworm population characteristics was strongly negatively correlated with soil ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), and strongly positively correlated with fine root biomass. The clarified relationship between earthworm population characteristics and soil physical and chemical properties will help qualitatively predict and evaluate the ecological functions of terrestrial earthworms in Qinling mountains.

Assessments of the impact of metals on juvenile earthworms (Eisenia fetida) in laboratory conditions

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of different concentrations of copper and zinc on the mortality and bodyweight of juvenile earthworms in artificial soil. Copper was more toxic with complete mortality at the dose rate of 1000 mg/kg. Bodyweight loss of earthworms was observed immediately, after the first week, except at the lowest concentration. In comparison to control, there were significant differences in the bodyweight loss every week in the concentrations of 333 and 666 mg/kg, and also 167 mg/kg in the fourth, sixth, and eighth week. Zinc has not shown a significant effect on mortality, except in the highest concentration, where survival was less than 25%. Statistically significant effect (p < 0.05) on bodyweight was registered only at the highest concentration, every week. The impact of metals on earthworm populations should be more accurately assessed, and data for juvenile earthworms should be considered when proposing a safe concentration of pollutants in the environment, because of the great importance of these animals' presence in the soil.

Soil fertility, system productivity and economic viability of coconut based high density multi species cropping system in Tamil Nadu, India

Monocropping of coconut is no longer viable in the context of price aberrations of copra, debilitating pests and dreadful diseases and intercropping turned out to be an inevitable venture. A research experiment was pursued at the AICRP (Palms) centre, Coconut Research Station, Aliyarnagar, Tamil Nadu, India during 2013-18 to assess the impact of coconut based High Density Multi Species Cropping System (HDMSCS) with cocoa (CCRP accessions), banana (var. Nendran) and pineapple (var. Kew), on soil fertility, system productivity and economic viability. The experiment was conducted in a sandy clay loam soil taxonomically classified as Typic Haplustepts. Four treatments viz., T1: 75 per cent recommended dose of nutrients (RDN) as chemical fertilizers 25 per cent RDN through organic recycling with vermicompost, vermiwash application, biofertilizer application and green manuring with gliricidia loppings; T2: 50 per cent RDN as chemical fertilizers with 50 per cent RDN through organic sources, T3: 100 per cent RDN through organic sources and T4: sole chemical fertilization were imposed in blocks comprising of 25 coconut palms per block. Results revealed that integration of 75 per cent recommended dose of nutrients (RDN) through chemical fertilizers and 25 per cent through organic sources (T1) resulted in increased nut yield of coconut, dry bean yield of cocoa and fruit yield of banana and pineapple. Nut yield was conspicuously lower in monocropping compared to HDMSCS. Soil organic carbon (SOC), earthworm count and microbial population were higher in the treatment, which received 100 per cent RDN through organic sources (T3). Net Returns, B: C ratio and employment generation potential were higher in HDMSCS than coconut monoculture. Partitioning of the recommended dose of nutrients through 75 per cent chemical fertilizers and 25 per cent organic manures for coconut based high density multi species cropping integrated with cocoa, banana and pineapple paved the way for enhanced soil fertility, system productivity, profitability and sustainability of coconut system in Western Zone of Tamil Nadu, India.

Earthworms Modulate Impacts of Soil Heterogeneity on Plant Growth at Different Spatial Scales.

Soil heterogeneity (uneven distribution of soil nutrients and/or other properties) is ubiquitous in nature and can greatly affect plant growth. As earthworm activity can influence nutrient redistribution in the soil, we hypothesize that earthworms may alter the effect of soil heterogeneity on plant growth and this effect may depend on the scale of soil heterogeneity. To test these hypotheses, we grew the clonal grass Leymus chinensis in three soil treatments (heterogeneous large vs. heterogeneous small patch vs. homogeneous soil treatment) with or without earthworms [i.e., Eisenia fetida Savigny (Lumbricidae, epigeic redworm)]. In the heterogeneous treatments, the soil consisted of patches with and without 15N-labeled litter (referred to as high- and low-quality patches, respectively), and in the homogeneous treatment, the soil was an even mixture of the two types of soil patches. Biomass of L. chinensis was significantly higher in the high- than in the low-quality patches, showing the foraging response; this foraging response occurred at both scales and under both earthworm treatments. Compared to the homogeneous treatment, the heterogeneous large patch treatment increased biomass of L. chinensis without earthworms, but decreased it with earthworms. In contrast, biomass of L. chinensis in the heterogeneous small patch treatment did not differ from that in the homogeneous treatment, irrespective of earthworms. Belowground biomass was much greater in the heterogeneous small than in the heterogeneous large patch treatment without earthworms, but it did not differ between these two scale treatments with earthworms. In the heterogeneous treatments, soil 15N was greater in the high- than in the low-quality patches, but this effect became much weaker with than without earthworms, suggesting that earthworm activity homogenized the soil. We conclude that earthworms can change the impact of soil heterogeneity on plant growth via homogenizing the soil, and that this effect of earthworms varies with patch scale. Such scale-dependent interactive effects of soil heterogeneity and earthworms could be a potential mechanism modulating plant community structure and productivity.

Veterinary antibiotics can reduce crop yields by modifying soil bacterial community and earthworm population in agro-ecosystems

Veterinary antibiotics are intensively and widely used in animal farming to treat or prevent diseases, as well as improve growth rate and feed efficiency. Animal manure is an important reservoir of veterinary antibiotics due to their high excretion rates, and thus manure application has been a critical source of veterinary antibiotics in agro-ecosystems. However, how veterinary antibiotics affect agroecosystem functions is still unclearly understood. In this study, we evaluated the effects of veterinary antibiotics on soil bacteria and earthworms in agricultural land with long-term manure application. The potential mechanisms of antibiotic-induced changes in crop yields were also revealed. The results showed that the increasing prevalence of veterinary antibiotics in agro-ecosystems inhibited earthworm abundance and bacterial diversity, and then decreased the bioavailability of soil nutrients. Furthermore, high-dose exposure to veterinary antibiotics improved the abundance of plant pathogenic bacteria. Analysis indicated that veterinary antibiotics played an important underlying role in driving the negative effects on peanut grain yields via disturbing microbe- and earthworm-mediated soil available nutrient contents. The direct toxicity effects of antibiotics on peanut relative yields were stronger than their indirect mediating effects. Additionally, the tradeoffs between antibiotics and agroecosystem functions increased at low exposure levels and then decreased at high exposure levels, which indicated the effects of antibiotics on agroecosystem functions were dose-dependent, except for earthworm biomass. Antibiotic contamination which will impose threats to agricultural sustainability was highlighted and should be paid more attention.

Ecotoxicity of herbicide carfentrazone-ethyl towards earthworm Eisenia fetida in soil

Herbicides pose a potential threat to the soil biodiversity and health. Carfentrazone-ethyl (CE), a triazolinones herbicide, is increasingly used in agricultural production. Its non-target toxic effects on soil microorganisms and soil enzymes are reported recently. However, the sublethal toxicity of CE on soil invertebrates like earthworms is not yet known. Therefore, in this work, the sublethal toxic effects of CE (0.05, 0.5, and 5.0 μg/g in soil) on the soil earthworm (Eisenia fetida) were evaluated using a battery of biomarkers including reactive oxygen species (ROS), enzyme (superoxide dismutase-SOD, catalase-CAT, peroxidase-POD, and glutathione S-transferase-GST) activities, malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, histopathological and DNA damage. Results indicated that CE increased ROS contents, enzyme activities, and MDA contents in the short-time (14 d), thus, causing a slight oxidative stress to E. fetida. However, the toxic effects of CE on earthworms gradually disappeared after 14 days. The CE did not cause histopathological and DNA damage in earthworms. Integrated Biological Response index (IBR) indicated that both concentration and exposure time of CE regulated its sublethal toxicity on earthworms. In conclusion, herbicide CE is safe to soil invertebrate earthworms when applied at the recommended doses. Our results contribute to the current understanding of CE effects on soil earthworms, and can be useful in developing soil health strategies under agrochemical use.

Biochemical phosphorus transformations in a calcareous soil as affected by earthworm, cow manure and its biochar additions

Application of raw or char material may modify the influence of earthworm activity on soil phosphorus (P) transformation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cow manure or cow manure biochar addition and its interaction with earthworm on organic (Po) and inorganic (Pi) P fractions, alkaline phosphatase activity and P-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) in a calcareous soil of semi-arid region. For this purpose, the soil was amended with cow manure and its biochar in 4 levels (0, 1, 2 and 5%) in the absence and presence of earthworm (Eisenia fetida). The treatments were then incubated for 90 days. The monitoring of earthworms was also carried out after 30 and 90 days incubation. The results showed an increase in weight of earthworms in control and cow manure amended soils at both incubation times. However, application of cow manure biochar resulted in mortality and an initial weight loss of earthworms (36–85%) at 30 days incubation. This negative effect decreased over time, so that the earthworms recovered in 1% biochar amended soil. Amendment additions increased proportion of NaHCO3-Pi and NaOH-Pi but decreased proportion of HCl-Pi, residual-P, NaOH-Po and HCl-Po, making P more available in soil. The impact of cow manure biochar on the NaHCO3-Pi and NaOH-Pi fractions was stronger than that of cow manure. Earthworm decreased the proportion of Pi fractions but increased the proportion of Po fractions, indicating a transformation of P from Pi to Po forms. Alkaline phosphatase activity and PSB number were also increased as affected by earthworm and amendment (especially cow manure) additions. No significant interaction between earthworm and amendment additions was observed (p < 0.05), indicating that the influence of earthworm on P transformations was not dependent on amendment additions. Overall, we concluded that biochar can be useful for the amendment of semi-arid calcareous soil in terms of P availability, but the negative response of earthworms to biochar and its effect on other soil processes should be taken into consideration.

Earthworm communities and microbial metabolic activity and diversity under conventional, feed and biogas cropping systems as affected by tillage practices

Understanding management factors driving soil biota is pivotal to improve the sustainability of cropping systems, especially given the emergence of new cropping systems induced by bioeconomy. Here, we investigated the combined effects of tillage practices (tillage versus no-tillage) and contrasted cropping systems, including conventional, feed and biogas cropping systems, on earthworm communities and microbial metabolic activity and diversity (using Biolog Ecoplate). After three years, our results revealed that tillage overrode the effect of cropping systems on soil biota while being also detrimental for both earthworm communities and microbial activity and diversity compared with no-tillage. By contrast, no-tillage had generally a beneficial effect on soil microbial activity and earthworm abundance. More importantly, under no-tillage, feed and biogas systems increased microbial activity and diversity which was likely due to the higher crop diversity and the use of digestate instead of manure and slurry compared with the conventional system. Taken together, our findings show that both earthworm communities and microbial activity and diversity are very sensitive to tillage. Moreover, microbial activity and diversity are also rapidly affected by the type of cropping system, suggesting that it would be a better indicator to detect short-term changes in soil functioning following change in land use. Our study also indicates that, provided that no-tillage is included, biogas cropping system with high crop diversity can promote soil biota compared with conventional farming practices, leading likely to the improvement of soil functioning and ecosystem service delivery.

Toxic effects of sublethal acetochlor with sublethal doses on earthworms in soil using multi-endpoints system

In this study, we examined the toxic effect of sublethal doses of acetochlor (1, 2, 4, 8 mg·kg-1) on earthworms by exogenous addition. The growth inhibition rate, cytochrome P450 isozymes (CYP1A2, 2C9 and 3A4) activities and the metabolomics were analyzed after seven days of exposure, to infer the toxicity threshold of acetochlor, screen the sensitive biomarkers from the levels of the individual, detoxified enzymes and small molecular metabolites, and elucidate the underlying toxicity mechanism. The results showed that CYP1A2, 2C9 and 3A4 activities were all significantly inhibited, and that the levels of ten metabolites (fructose-6-diphosphate, cytosine monophosphate, uridine monophosphate, adenosine monophosphate, adenosine, xanthine, fumaric acid, dihydroxyglutaric acid, ornithine and 16-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid) were significantly decreased by acetochlor exposure. The levels of six metabolites (adenosine succinic acid, succinic acid, arginine, tryptophan, asparagine and phenylalanine) were significantly increased when earthworms being exposed to 2-8 mg·kg-1 acetochlor. Acetochlor exposure caused oxidative damage to earthworms, weakened the glycolysis, disturbed the tricarboxylic acid cycle, disordered the purine and pyrimidine metabolism, and impaired the amino acids metabolism. Compared with the end point at individual level, the above 16 small molecule metabolites and CYP isozymes activities were more sensitive to acetochlor exposure. It was thus recommended that CYP isozymes (1A2, 2C9, and 3A4) activities and small molecular metabolites could be used as a set of biomarkers to diagnose the acetochlor pollution, given their high sensitivity and accuracy.

An assessment of the effects of herbicides on the population density of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) in soil

Continuous burrowing, ingesting, turning, mixing, aeration and the improvement of the drainage of soil are the major roles played by earthworms in renewing soil fertility. Larger amounts of herbicides are applied to the soil continuously by farmers as they realize the importance of these herbicides. These herbicides could then accumulate to toxic levels in the soil and become lethal to microorganisms, plant, wild life and man. In this study, we sought to assess the effects of formulated products of glyphosate, atrazine and 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D) on the survival and reproduction of the tropical earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). The highest number of deaths of adult worms was recorded for 2, 4-D formulation at 0.5 mg/kg and the lowest in glyphosate formulation at 0.2 mg/kg. The general trend was that, the number of cocoons reduced with increasing concentration across all the formulations of the herbicides.

Toxicity of ivermectin residues in aged farmyard manure to terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates

Abstract Farmyard manure is often stored, aged and spread on fields as fertiliser; however, dung may be contaminated with residues of veterinary endectocides used to treat livestock for parasites. The persistence of these chemicals during storage and impact on invertebrate biodiversity after spreading are not well understood. This study considered whether residues in aged cattle manure could have impacts on terrestrial and freshwater invertebrate biodiversity and ecosystem function. Fresh cattle dung was spiked with known concentrations of the endectocide ivermectin or an excipient only (control) and aged in the field for 4 months between February and May 2020. Each month rainwater run‐off was collected and used to examine toxicity using the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna. In June 2020, manure was spread on mesocosms containing topsoil, and above‐ground insect emergence, soil fauna feeding rate, earthworm abundance and pasture productivity (perennial ryegrass growth), were measured over 10 weeks. Rainwater‐runoff from manure contaminated with ivermectin was highly toxic (60–100% mortality) to D. magna for the entire 4 months of storage. Coleoptera and Diptera emergence was lower from mesocosms spread with ivermectin‐contaminated manure compared with control manure. Pasture productivity was significantly lower (18–20%) in mesocosms spread with ivermectin‐contaminated manure. The results indicate that ivermectin residues aged manure have the potential to retain toxic effects on terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates for at least 4 months of storage, could reduce pasture productivity, and may have pervasive impacts on invertebrate biodiversity in agricultural systems.

Soil heterogeneity and earthworms independently promote growth of two bamboo species

Soils are commonly spatially heterogeneous and earthworms are widely distributed in terrestrial ecosystems. While both soil heterogeneity and earthworms can influence the performance of plants, whether they can interact to affect the growth of bamboo species has not been examined. In a greenhouse experiment, we planted two dwarf bamboo species, Sasa argenteosriata and Sasaella glabra, separately in a heterogeneous soil consisting of two different types of soil patches and in a homogeneous soil in which the two types of soil patches were evenly mixed. These soils were added with or without earthworms. Both S. argenteosriata and S. glabra grew more in the heterogeneous soil than in the homogeneous soil and in the soil with earthworms than in the soil without earthworms. Soil heterogeneity and earthworms did not interact to influence the performance of either bamboo species. Independent of the presence of earthworms, both bamboo species grew equally well in the two types of soil patches within the heterogeneous soil, indicating that the foraging behavior of bamboos is weak; this is likely because resource translocation between interconnected ramets located in different soil patches homogenized plant responses to different resource levels. These results indicate that a heterogeneous supply of nutrients may aid in the growth of bamboo species, and these actions should be integrated into the sustainable management of bamboo forests.