Early Qing Research Articles

Building Communities through Rituals: Glimpses into the Life of Chinese Christian Communities in the 17th Century

As central agents in the cultural dialogue between China and Europe in the 17th century, Christian Chinese communities represent a rich and fascinating source, offering a unique intercultural perspective on the intellectual, cultural, and religious world of late Ming and early Qing China. What did these communities look like? How did they come into being and maintain their significance as a community? By utilising stories depicting scenes of Christian ritual practices in local Chinese contexts between the 1620s and 1640s, collected by a late Ming Christian convert from Fujian, this article delves into the life of Chinese Christian communities, specifically focusing on the dimension of ritual practice. It shows how rituals played a key role in the formation of these communities, not only in keeping them alive, but also in continually redefining their significance for their members.

峿堂 李象秀의 <歸去來辭句解>와 林雲銘의 영향

Yi Sang-soo is a Neo-Confucianist of the Horon Faction and wordsmith of the Nongam Faction of Joseon in the 19th century. <Guigeoraesa Guhae (‘Returning Home’ with Commentaries)> is a literary criticism he wrote at 30. In <Guigeoraesa Guhae>, he left several traces of accepting the view of 『Gu Wen Xi Yi(Analysis of the Significance in Old-style Prose)』, a criticism by Lin Yunming, a stylist of the Late Ming and the Early Qing. 『Gu Wen Xi Yi』 is an analysis of the selective old literary masterpieces of China based on the section-chapter composition method. This is where a literary person of the Nongam Faction accepted the criticism from the Late Ming and the Early Qing; it provides a clue to peek into the influence relationship of its composition and criticism. <Guigeoraesa Guhae> shows a similar composition due to the influence of Lin Yunming’s view. In the case of 『Gu Wen Xi Yi』, it added related explanations in small letters to each phrase in the text of <Guigeoraesa(Gui Qu Lai Ci)> and added an end note at the end of the text in large letters. Yi Sang-soo referred to this and supplemented and improved his view by dividing the first and second paragraphs, abridging or elaborating parts of the end note, and moving them to footnotes. The commentaries can be divided into theme, composition, technique, and elaboration. Composition and technique are related to the organic order and change between sentence elements belonging to the work, and they are devices to highlight the theme of the entire work effectively. This must be understood in the organic context of the theme and is influenced by the section-chapter composition method. The elaboration is the supplementary explanation of the implication of certain wording. This can be divided into the acceptance of the explanation of wording and the criticism of popular interpretation. It tends to agree with Lin Unming’s view based on the theme and context.

The Images of Jesus and the Virgin Mary in the Early Qing Collection of Taoist Immortal Stories

The book Lidai Shenxian Tongjian (The Comprehensive Mirror of Immortals Throughout the Dynasties), a compilation of Taoist narratives from the early Qing dynasty, contains a dedicated section on “The Life of Jesus,” accompanied by two images portraying Jesus and the Virgin Mary. “The Life of Jesus” is believed to have originated from Gaspar Ferreira’s Nianzhu Guicheng (Rule for the Recitation of the Rosary) and Diego de Pantoja’s Tianzhu Yesu Shounan Shimo (The Passion of the Lord Jesus). The narratives and images of Christian content within Tongjian showcase the influence of Chinese Ming–Qing Taoist immortal stories and the indigenization of Christianity that resulted in a fusion of Chinese and Western cultural elements. Multiple versions of the accompanying images exist in different editions of Tongjian, indicating an evolution in the depictions of Jesus and the Virgin Mary. Through a comparative analysis of these images and their variations, we can glean valuable insights into the Qing dynasty editors’ reception of Western culture, shedding light on the process of localizing Christianity during the Ming–Qing period and emphasizing the significance of the cultural exchange and mutual understanding between Chinese and Western civilizations.

Reshaping Abraham’s Image in Early Qing China: A Comparative Study of Catholic and Jewish Interpretations

In the early Qing dynasty, the Jesuit missionary Louis de Poirot’s (He Qingtai 賀清泰, 1735–1814) Chinese rendition of the Bible, Guxin Shengjing (The Ancient and New Testament) (古新聖經), reshaped the figure of Abraham. Contrary to the depiction by Chinese Jews of the era, de Poirot portrayed Abraham as a sage, resonating with the traditional Chinese concept of the “five cardinal relationships” (rulers to subjects, fathers to sons, husbands to wives, among siblings, and between friends), and an exemplar of virtue and faith, devoid of human flaws. Key differences emerged in translating Abraham’s name, religious stature, and national identity, influenced by distinct belief systems, attitudes towards Confucian culture, and political dynamics. Analyzing these Catholic and Jewish perspectives on Abraham enhances our understanding of the Bible’s contextualization and informs contemporary religious localization.

Between Spanish Franciscans and Chinese Literati in Late Ming and Early Qing: Modes of Interactions and Cultural Exchanges

The Franciscan Order was one of the most important missionary orders in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. While rooted in the local communities, they also engaged in various forms of interactions with Chinese literati. This article will begin by briefly discussing the issue of the Franciscans changing from religious habit into Chinese dress as well as their evolving attitude towards Confucianism and Chinese rituals, aiming to illustrate the process of shaping their “Western Confucian” image and their adaptation to Chinese culture. Subsequently, the focus of this paper will be shifted to exploring the modes of interactions between the Spanish Franciscans and the Chinese literati. The author argues that the interactions between the two sides were primarily power-based. These power-based interactions entailed establishing connections with officials and leveraging their influence to safeguard missionary activities. It can be further categorized into three types. The first type involved socializing with officials, while the second type included interaction with Jesuit officials in court, and the third type was direct involvement in official positions. In their engagement with literati, the Franciscans demonstrated a thorough understanding of and adaptation to Chinese societal and cultural norms, thereby facilitating the development of their mission.

Propagating the Rosary in the Early Qing—A Case Study of del Rosario’s Comprehensive Manuscript

Studies on the Rosary in the late Ming and early Qing usually focus on works written by Jesuits and mostly stem from an artistic aspect. This article, however, shifts the focus to The True Peace of Humankind, a manuscript written by the Dominican missionary Arcadio del Rosario in the seventeenth century, the first comprehensive book on the Rosary in Chinese. It first summarizes the early-stage propagation of the Rosary in China by the Jesuits and then examines the structure and content of The True Peace of Humankind. It is noteworthy that the manuscript repeatedly uses an analogy with flowers to highlight Mary’s intercession. Dating back to the Catholic tradition in Europe, the propagation of the Rosary through analogy with flowers resembles the propagation of reciting Buddhist prayers in Chinese society. This article applies contextual studies to explore two main questions: how is del Rosario’s manuscript different from the previous texts on the Rosary written by the Jesuits? What is the significance of the manuscript in the context of the Chinese Rites Controversy?

Chinese Transformation of Christian Cosmology in Late Ming and Early Qing : Jesuit Missionaries between Western Modern Astronomy and Traditional Chinese Astronomy

Chinese Transformation of Christian Cosmology in Late Ming and Early Qing : Jesuit Missionaries between Western Modern Astronomy and Traditional Chinese Astronomy

Translator Stylistics: A Corpus Analysis of Two English Translations of Traditional Chinese Medicine Classic Da Sheng Bian

Da Sheng Bian, a significant work on obstetrics and gynecology that emerged in the early Qing Dynasty, was initially published as “A Treatise on Midwifery” in 1842 by William Lockhart, a British missionary to China. In 1894, John G. Kerr, an American missionary, translated the text as “The Tat Shang Pin”. This paper conducts a comparative study of the two English translations using a self-constructed English-Chinese parallel corpus of Da Sheng Bian. The study explores the translation styles of the two translators by examining the token-types ratio and frequency at the lexical level, mean sentence length at the syntactic level, and the use of conjunctions at the discourse level. The observed differences in translation styles between the two translations are analyzed in relation to the translators’ backgrounds and translation strategies.

The Early Qing Compilation of the Ming History in Manchu: The Contexts, Contents, and Significance of the Ming gurun i suduri

Abstract The Qing court produced an extensive history of the Ming empire in the Manchu language, which has survived in manuscript form in the Palace Museum under the title Ming gurun i suduri (History of the Ming State). Based on a close reading of this manuscript and scrutiny of related archival documents, this article elaborates on three observations. First, the Ming gurun i suduri resulted from the earliest stage (1645–1669) of the Qing compilation of the Ming history. With a primary focus on producing a chronicle in Manchu, it exemplifies the mid-seventeenth-century development of Inner Asian historiography. Second, it recounts Ming history by juxtaposing and connecting translated extracts from the Ming shilu 明實錄 (Ming Veritable Records) whenever it exists. This approach that combines compiling and translating, in effect, offers a reassessment of key political events and figures. Third, in light of the Ming gurun i suduri thus contextualized, the 1739 Ming shi 明史 (Ming History) is best seen as a product of a century-long history of negotiation (1645–1739) during which the ideological agenda and intellectual achievements of the early Qing court gradually sank into oblivion.

The Imagination of Alchemy: A Chinese Response to Catholicism in Late Ming and Early Qing

As a common cultural phenomenon in China and the West, alchemy not only embodies the scientific spirit of people before modern times, but also contains certain religious beliefs, and even creates unrealistic secular imaginations. When Catholicism entered China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Chinese also projected this imagination of alchemy onto the missionaries. Behind this imagination actually lays the strong interest of Chinese people in the financial resources of the missionaries. On the one hand, there is the historical influence of traditional Chinese alchemy, and on the other hand, there is the curiosity caused by the lifestyle of missionaries in China. The imagination of alchemy not only reflects a historical aspect of the encounter between China and the West during the Ming and Qing dynasties, but also reflects a complex social psychology of mixed curiosity, panic, suspicion, and vigilance in pre-modern China.

A Study of Fan Yupin's Transport of Military Provisions to the North Frontier during the Early Qing Dynasty

<p>清初內務府設立的官商中，最著名的是范氏家族。此家族自明末范永斗已活躍於滿蒙地區，清初則繼續經營邊疆貿易，在雍乾朝替朝廷北運軍糧。康雍乾年間與準噶爾戰爭，消耗鉅額軍費，其中以運輸軍糧為大宗。康熙時官運米糧，每石達40至120兩，而范毓馪運糧每石則在30兩以下，節省甚多銀兩，於財政上有重要意義。過去日本與大陸學界已有些許范毓馪的研究，探討他運米、採辦人參、經營鹽業、買辦洋銅等事業。然，近年來隨著中國第一歷史檔案館大量開放滿漢文檔案，將可補充、展開過去的研究。本文將討論范家在明清之際的邊境貿易，范毓馪的生平與官商角色、運糧的路線、數量，以及米糧來源等面向。范毓馪受到雍正皇帝的信任，故乾隆朝仍由其子侄輓運軍糧。最後探討范毓馪的政商關係，包括他被傅爾丹、伊都立需索銀兩，以及兵部尚書通智控告盤剝商人，提議北路運糧改為官運等。</p> <p> </p><p>The extended Fan family clan stands out as the most famous official merchant-household established by the Imperial Household Department during the earliest stages of the Qing Dynasty. One member of the family, Fan Yongdou, had been active in the Manchu-Mongolian regions since the late Ming Dynasty, and his descendants continued to engage in border trade during the early Qing Dynasty, delivering military supplies to the north frontier for the imperial court during the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns. The military expenses, most especially the transport of military supplies drained down the coffers during the wars with the Dzungar Khanate in the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong periods. In the Kangxi era, the official price for transporting rice was 40 to 120 taels per picul, while Fan Yupin transported it for under 30 taels per picul, resulting in substantial savings in silver that had a significant financial impact. Past studies of Fan Yupin’s activities in Japan and mainland China have explored his business of transporting rice, purchasing ginseng, overseeing the salt industry, and compradoring foreign copper. However, in recent years, with the extensive opening of Manchu and Chinese archives at the First Historical Archives of China, it is now possible to supplement and expand on previous research. This article will discuss the border trade of the Fan family during the transition from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, Fan Yupin’s life and his role as an official merchant, the routes and quantities of rice he transported, and the sources of this rice. Fan Yupin gained the trust of Emperor Yongzheng, which allowed his sons and nephews to continue carrying military supplies in the Qianlong era. Finally, we will explore the political and commercial relationships of Fan Yupin, including Fu Erdan and Yiduli ‘s demand that he gave them silver, as well as the accusation by the Minister of War Tongzhi that he was exploiting other merchants, which lead Tongzhi to propose a switch to official transport for the military rice along the northern route.</p> <p> </p>

Merit, Marriage, and Privilege: The Emperor's Son-in-Law and His Family in the Early Qing Dynasty

The son-in-law of the Qing emperor was given the title of “efu.” Taking Han-Jun bannerman Sun Cheng-yun, the son-in-law of Emperor Kangxi, as the starting point, this paper explores the status of his family in the early Qing dynasty based on archival materials and biographies. Marrying up into the royal family through a princess had a certain impact on Sun's family in terms of his inheritance of a niru, the tenure of family members, and the family's hereditary titles. The examination of this family also provides some insights into the political status of the Han-Jun banner sons-in-law of the early Qing emperors.

The Emotional Expression of Ink Language in Chinese paintingA Case Study of the Ink Art of Bada Shanren

Ink art holds a distinctive position within the realm of artistic expression in China. Throughout the course of Chinese history, ink painting has served as the favored medium for literati to convey their deepest emotions. Unlike the blue-green ShanShui style, ink painting offers a material that is both of superior quality and cost-effective. It encompasses techniques such as ink color changes, rubbing, and dyeing, allowing artists to directly reflect their pursuit of poetic expression. Bada Shanren, also known as Zhu Da, emerges as a preeminent master of ink painting during the early Qing Dynasty, whose artistic legacy continues to evoke profound thoughts and emotions even in contemporary times. By delving into the historical context and techniques employed in ink painting, this article explores the profound emotional expressions prevalent in literati ink art, using Bada Shanren as a compelling case study.

The Cooperative Translation Activities of China and the West and Their Influence in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

In the eyes of many scholars, there have been three pivotal periods in the history of Chinese translation, which are: the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of scientific and technological books from the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, and the translation of Western works from the Opium War (1840-1842) to the May Fourth Period (1915-1921). As the second climax in the history of Chinese translation, the Sci-tech translation activities in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties held a pivotal position in the history of Chinese translation, greatly promoting the dissemination of scientific and technological knowledge in China and enabling Chinese people to gain a deeper understanding of Western culture for the first time. This article summarizes and analyzes the influence of the Sci-tech translation activities in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

Investigating the Image of Architecture Decoration of ShengJing Imperial Palace in LiaoNing Province, China

Today, throughout antiquity, myriad ethnic collectives have inhabited Liaoning Province, China, significantly shaping the historical trajectory of the nation and fostering a multitude of esteemed architectural and cultural legacies. ShengJing Imperial Palace is in Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China. ShengJing Imperial Palace is a royal building built in the early Qing Dynasty 500 years ago. The information value shown by its architectural decoration needs to be further developed. This paper takes architectural decoration images as the research content. It uses the methodology of practical aesthetics, conducts field research on ShengJing Imperial Palace, and analyzes the three elements of visual impact form, political decoration, and national practice to obtain a single evident, idealized local decoration image characteristics. In conclusion, the visual layout of the rational representation of the Shengjing Palace building decoration is clear and distinct, and the visual feeling of the subject is strong and full of impact. These characteristics can be summarized as strong qualitative architectural decoration image characteristics. Under the Qing rulers' politically strict ideology, the image experience category of architectural decoration showed ethical characteristics. This study can be a reference for adapting traditional architectural decoration to modern design.

The Social Backgrounds, Dharma Lineages, and Achievements of Women Chan Masters, 1572–1722

This article continues the investigation of my previous paper ‘Wan Ming Qing chu dongnan yanhai gangkou Fosi de biqiuni shenying’ 晚明清初東南沿海港口佛寺的比丘尼身影 (‘The Historic Image of the Bhikkhuni Who Lived at Buddhist Monasteries of Seaport Cities of Southeast China during the Late Ming and Early Qing Period’). While discussing the space of port city Buddhist monasteries and their urban environment, and how they aided or hindered the bhikkhuni monastic community, or individual bhikkhuni in their practice, life, and personal achievements, I also realized that a bhikkhuni’s family background and her connections with local gentry and eminent persons indeed contributed to the rise of her prestige. The publication and distribution of the recorded sayings of several women Chan monastics residing in the Buddhist monasteries of port cities during the late Ming and early Qing periods can be regarded as a commendable breakthrough in the Buddhist history of this period. To further clarify the resource structure that helped support these Chan bhikkhuni, including the multifaceted interplay between their blood ties, dharma connections, and regional connections, I aim here to particularly examine the backgrounds, dharma lineages, activity regions, and ultimate achievements of these women Chan monastics. I will consider how it is that these Chan bhikkhuni were able to use such resources to achieve the distinction of having their deeds recorded, while so many more of their fellow bhikkhuni have been forgotten. While in real life, there were a rather large number of bhikkhuni, only a few have been able to have their names passed down to posterity. Women have always faced greater challenges than men in having their voices known and receiving social recognition, and even for men, this has never been easy without a relevant support system—one’s own personal cultivation, the prestige of one’s family, the power of one’s dharma lineage, the strength of one’s personal connection, the disparity in the resources that one has access to in their urban or rural society, etc.; all these various factors affect one’s achievements and performance. Especially in Chan Buddhist texts, where women are greatly underrepresented, I aim to explore in this paper how a women Chan monastic could be included in the Chan historical record, have her recorded sayings published, and have a place in Buddhism or the dharma lineages of Chan.

ON THE QUESTION OF CLARIFYING THE NAME OF ZHU DA (1626–1705) AND ITS ORIGIN

Zhu Da (1626–1705) was a famous Chinese artist who lived during the late-Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty. He was born in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. Zhu Da was related to the imperial house of Ming. After the fall of this dynasty, during the reign of the Manchus, he was forced to hide, became a monk for some time and reached heights in the study of Buddhism, after which he returned to worldly life. Zhu Da and his work were significantly influenced by the classical texts of Confucianism, the philosophy of Cheng-Zhu, Buddhism and Taoism. His poetic captions for paintings and individual poems are extremely symbolic and have a special artistic style. Zhu Da became a reformer of traditional literati painting (wenrenhua) and raised it to new heights. Subsequently, he had a great influence on the painting of representatives of the Four Monks and the Eight Eccentrics from Yangzhou, as well as on the style of such 20th century masters as Qi Baishi and Xu Beihong, who worked at the end of the Qing period and the beginning of the Republican period in China. The last fifty years have become the most fruitful period in the field of studying the work of Zhu Da. The research moved outside of China, publications by foreign scientists appeared about the artist, and the name of Zhu Da (Bada Shanren) gained worldwide fame and recognition. The scientific works and articles devoted to him are conventionally divided into the following three thematic areas. The first one is the study of Zhu Da’s pseudonyms (names), his life and contacts with artists and poets, his contemporaries. The second area is the study of Zhu Da’s creative thought and artistic achievements. The third one is a study of the influence of Zhu Da’s painting style on later artists and related comparisons. The article analyses publications and scientific works devoted to Zhu Da’s creative work, published over the past half century. Among them, those related to clarifying the pseudonyms (names) of Zhu Da, his pedigree and biography are especially highlighted; various approaches of Chinese and foreign scientists to the study of the creative work of the outstanding Chinese master and his artistic heritage are considered.

明末淸初 香奩詩의 예술사회학적 분석

During the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, Poetry of trousseau formed positive perceptions and values of human individuality and desires, and became a literary genre that was widely enjoyed by female writers as well as the literary class regardless of origin and status. At that time, writers recognized Poetry of trousseau as a genre of independent lyric poetry by honestly expressing their experiences in poetry without being bound by traditional values in expressing individual emotions. In particular, writers were active in the popularization of Poetry of trousseau, such as creation, creation, engraving, and distribution, using their reputation and human network, so they responded to the trends and trends of the times and naturally jumped on the sensibility and social trend. Because it was created based on sensuous materials, the readership was very thick, and in particular, it became a major means of cultivation and creation of writers, which served as a major opportunity for Poetry of trousseau to have a status as a lyric poetry that sincerely expresses individual emotions. In addition, in the era of destruction called the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, Poetry of trousseau also contains the genre characteristics as a satirical poem that reveals the dissatisfaction that writers kept in their hearts.

Rethinking Ricci’s Missionary Strategy: The Disputes between Buglio and Schall

During the late Ming Dynasty period, the Jesuits carried out a cultural accommodation strategy in China, commonly known as Ricci’s Strategy, due to the significant role played by Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) during this process. This strategy encompassed three elements: evangelizing through science and technology, establishing connections with the upper class, and compiling books to spread evangelism, all of which helped Catholicism to be promoted in China and be accepted by the Chinese people collectively. But the strategy also drew a lot of opposition within and outside of the Society of Jesus, some of which even led to the Rites Controversy. The extant literature primarily focuses on the conflicts that arose between the Society of Jesus and other religious orders, as well as the divergent viewpoints within the Society itself, like Niccolò Longobardo (1559–1654)’s well-documented anti-Riccian position. However, this approach largely ignored the disputes that arose within the Jesuit community in Beijing during the 17th century, mainly involving Ludovico Buglio (1606–1682) and Adam Schall (1592–1666) as two key figures on opposing sides. These disputes primarily centered around three points: the inclusion of superstitious elements in the calendar, the identities of the Jesuits in Early Qing, and the approach to inculturating theology. Although these historical events offered new perspectives and materials for the study of Ricci’s Strategy, they have received limited scholarly attention. This paper focuses on the disputes between Buglio and Schall, analyzing how Matteo Ricci’s Strategy was investigated during that time.

On the Implication of Spirituality Theory in Yuan Mei’s Poems

As a representative poet and essayist in the Qianjia period of the Qing Dynasty, Yuan Mei who styled himself Zicai with Jianzhai as his courtesy name was a scholar at the beginning and had a good reputation in his official career. However, he resigned and lived in seclusion in the 14th year of the Qianlong period after witnessing some challenges. Advocating the “spirituality” (Spirituality theory is an idea of poetry inditement and comment in ancient Chinese poetics, which is advocated most strongly by Yuan Mei in Qing Dynasty. It is one of the four major schools of poetry theory in the early Qing Dynasty, together with verve theory, style theory, and texture theory) of poetry inditement, Yuan Mei paid attention to expressing the author’s true emotion and personality. “Spirituality” put forward by him attacked the popular retro-ism and formalism in poetry at that time, which was of progressive significance, although it had limitations due to its overemphasis on subjective emotion. This paper will analyze Yuan Mei’s spirituality theory from the image and emotion of Yuan Mei’s poetry inditement.