Early Qing Research Articles

Spatial Expansion, Planning, and Their Influences on the Urban Landscape of Christian Churches in Canton (1582–1732 and 1844–1911)

Canton (present-day Guangzhou, China) has a long history as a trading port and serves as a window for studying the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. Canton was a city built under Confucian orders, leading to significant differences (when compared to Christian cities) in urban functional zoning, layout, urban landscape, and methods for shaping spatial order. Therefore, the churches constructed by Christian missionary societies in Canton merit particular attention in missionary history research and urban planning history. Based on local gazetteers, historical maps, export paintings, Western travelogues, and archives at that time, from a cultural landscape perspective, this article compares and analyzes the spatial expansion of Christian churches and their influences on the urban landscape in Canton in two stages. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the spatial layout of the churches indicated an active integration into Canton City. After the Opium War, churches were not only used for religious purposes but also served as symbols asserting the presence of Christians and Western powers (which made the situation more complicated). Missionary societies attracted believers through the construction of public facilities, building Christian communities centered around churches, thereby competing with authorities for spatial power and influencing the urban functional system and spatial layout controlled by the authorities. Comparatively, the Roman Catholic Cathedral has profoundly changed the traditional landscape order in Canton, while the Protestant Dongshan Church interacted more closely with the city.

The Christian interpretations on the nature of heaven’s mandate in late Ming and early Qing dynasties

This paper aims to examine in detail the Christian interpretations on the Confucian concept of the nature of the heaven’s mandate [天命之性] during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from historical and textual perspective. Neo-Confucians of the Song Dynasty interpret the nature of the heaven’s mandate as human nature, believing that heaven endowed humans with reason, known as the heavenly principle [天理]. In the late Ming period, Christian missionaries such as Jesuits in China used Confucian classics to convey Christian thoughts, interpreting the heaven’s mandate as God’s mandate and the nature of the heaven’s mandate as the spirituality bestowed by God, which is equated with the soul. They also used the nature of the heaven’s mandate as a criterion for determining the authenticity of a teaching (religion[教]), asserting that Christianity is the true teaching (religion). Thus, Christianity in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties provides a new interpretation on the nature of the heaven’s mandate and promotes the integration of Christian and Confucian thoughts through this interpretation.Contribution: The paper provides a detailed review of the history of Christian interpretations on the nature of the heaven’s mandate during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Currently, there is limited scholarly research on the theological thoughts of Christianity during this period. This study not only enhances the understanding of the new interpretations by Christianity but also aids in comprehending the theological ideas of Christianity during the late Ming and early Qing periods. By reinterpreting Confucian classics, Christianity endowed them with new meanings, offering valuable references for the localisation of Christian theology and the study of cross-cultural exchange.

The Influence of Jianjiang on Modern and Contemporary Landscape Painting

Jianjiang is a pioneering landscape painter in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty. His works are austere, cool, dry and quiet. Jianjiang learned from tradition and nature, combined with his own emotional personality, formed a unique painting language and artistic outlook. The formal language in Jianjiang landscape painting works is rich, and the schema presented is unique. Jianjiang's painting art has been around for hundreds of years. When reading Jianjiang's works, people still feel a strong sense of form and times. His distinctive painting language and spiritual connotation have a very profound influence on future generations of painters.

Dulia or Latria: Revisiting the Catholic Missionaries’ View on Guishen in Late Ming and Early Qing

Dulia or Latria: Revisiting the Catholic Missionaries’ View on Guishen in Late Ming and Early Qing

Apostolate through Books: The Translation Practice by Catholicism during Late Ming and Early Qing

Catholicism during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties is the most fascinating chapter in the development history of Christian culture in China. Apostolate through books emerged as a prominent method of Sino-West cultural exchange during that time. Apostolate through books by Catholicism was realized by means of translation practice, leading to a notable religious influence. Based on this perspective, this paper discusses the history and connotation of apostolate through books, particularly focusing on the characteristics of apostolate through books by Catholicism during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. In achieving this, this research shows the translation motivation and translation effect of apostolate through books during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. Furthermore, this paper emphasizes that the translation practice of apostolate through books by Catholicism has laid a good foundation for the sinicization and acceptance of Catholicism in China, highlighting the relationship between apostolate through books by Catholicism and the sinicization of Christian culture, so as to enlighten the internationalization of religious culture.

Dialogues on the Issues of Theodicy in Late Ming Fujian

This paper aims to illustrate the dialogues on the issue of theodicy in late Ming Fujian. The Catholicism that entered China in the late Ming dynasty had a competitive relationship with indigenous religions in terms of their meaning systems. Catholicism emphasized the omniscience, omnibenevolence, and omnipotence of God, which created tensions and contradictions with the reality of phenomena such as the suffering of good people and the existence of evil. In the late Ming period, scholars, believers, and missionaries in the Fujian region engaged in deep exchanges and dialogues on theodicy, reflecting the significant attention and consideration given to the problem of evil. This paper first analyzes the dialogues on theodicy between the Fujian scholar Ye Xianggao (1559–1627) and the missionary Giulio Aleni (1582–1649). Next, it explores the discussions on the problem of evil between ordinary believers in the Fujian region and Giulio Aleni in their daily lives. Finally, it examines how anti-Catholics used the problem of evil to criticize Catholicism, and it also identifies the characteristics and impacts of Catholic theodicy in the late Ming and early Qing periods.

The esthetics of everyday life for Jiangnan literati in the late Ming and early Qing period: Drinking culture as a case study

The everyday lives of late Ming and early Qing Jiangnan literati had interesting esthetic characteristics. This article analyzes drinking culture to explore these artistic lifestyles. The consumption of alcohol was not merely a way to satisfy the taste buds or the stomach. Rather, it was a form of entertainment and cultural practice that showcased lifestyle and personality. In addition to analyzing the emotional lives of Jiangnan literati, this article will also explore the esthetic concept of “leisure” (閒xian) as leisure embodied the esthetics of Jiangnan literati life. Leisure was a daily life pursuit of many Jiangnan literati, as well as a measure of a person’s taste. The everyday lives of literati became more interesting and varied because they valued leisure.

A Study of the Courtesan Images in Sanyŏhwa during the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

This paper explores <i>Sanyŏhwa</i> (仕女畵, <i>Painting of Court Ladies</i>) from late Ming and early Qing dynasties, aiming to unravel the various perspectives and interpretations associated with courtesans. During these periods, economic and commercial growth in Jiangnan (江南) spurred a thriving entertainment culture, fostering intimate bonds between celebrated courtesans and intellectuals. Known for their refined poise and exceptional talents, courtesans were lauded as the epitome of beauty by the contemporary elites who frequently discussed the beauty (美人, <i>meiren</i>) within the broader discourse of material culture, with courtesans likely serving as the primary subjects.</br>If the term ‘beauty’ implies an idealized woman with knowledge, admirable character, and various talents and charms regardless of their status, then the courtesans of the late Ming and early Qing embodied this ideal. In <i>Sanyŏhwa</i>, they were depicted as adept in poetry, calligraphy, and painting, thereby demonstrating a wide spectrum of artistic talents. At times, they appeared as recluses; at other times, as symbols of nostalgia for the late Ming era. The intellectuals of the late Ming and early Qing transformed the images of courtesans from overtly sexualized and worldly figures to idealized women. Through their interactions with courtesans, they projected their own tastes and circumstances onto them, thus creating a universal image of beauty.

Social changes and peasant livelihood during the reign of Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty

In the early Qing Dynasty, Manchu rulers sought to prevent a large number of Han people from leaving customs and infringing on the interests of the Manchus, due to its influence on the customs and order of the Manchu people in the "the place of prosperity", Northeast China was sealed off and Han people in the region were prohibited from migrating to the northeast. However, the strict ban did not completely stop the Han immigration activities. A series of economic policies implemented during the period from Kangxi to Qianlong made Shandong's population increase substantially, and it was difficult for the limited land to support the rapidly growing population. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, a series of natural disastehasave occurred in Shandong, and poverty and famine forced a large number of Han people to enter the east to make a living. Based on the experience of Shao Ying, a poor man in Jimo, Shandong province, during the Qianlong period, this paper tries to explore this grand immigration history and the economic and social background at that time.

Impact of Shi Tao Hot Phenomenon on Art Market

Shi Tao was a famous artist from the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty. His reputation, however, appears to have fluctuated over time. During the Qing Dynasty, Shi Tao’s influence was considered minimal and even marginalized. However, in the period of the Republic of China, he was highly valued and gained great fame. This affluent phenomenon is referred to as the "Shi Tao Hot". Along with this phenomenon, significant changes occurred in Shi Tao's art market. This article aims to examine the development and changes in Shi Tao's art market, thereby understanding some of the impacts brought about by the "Shi Tao Hot".

The Study on the Reasons and Cultural Inheritance of Huang Daozhou’s Calligraphy in the "Xiaojing"

Huang Daozhou (1585-1646), also known as Shizhai, was a famous scholar and calligrapher of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. In the final stages of his life, he was imprisoned for his candid advice to the emperor, during which he wrote 120 volumes of the "Xiaojing" (The Classic of Filial Piety). This paper aims to explore Huang Daozhou's motives for writing the "Xiaojing" in prison and its cultural significance. By analyzing Huang Daozhou's life, educational background, reasons for imprisonment, and calligraphy style, the paper reveals the importance of the "Xiaojing" in Huang Daozhou's mind and how he expressed his loyalty and filial piety to the nation and family through his calligraphy. The study shows that Huang Daozhou's calligraphy is not only an artistic creation but also a reflection of his moral and political stance.

Correction to: Picturing the flora of China: Early Qing dynasty plant paintings in Britain

Correction to: Picturing the flora of China: Early Qing dynasty plant paintings in Britain

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

Abstract The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates a supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil. It thus had a more logical and rigorous theological argumentation at its disposal in its exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, the question of who has the right to reward and punish, the consequences of reward and retribution, and so on. This article begins by analyzing the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). Secondly, it sketches the views expressed by the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then, it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and also examines the responses of the native religions of China to the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the similarities and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As for the intention to do good, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement to promote good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, they were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution, and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of the Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil has undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil, thus it had a more logical and rigorous theological arguments. It had exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, who has the rights to reward and punish, and the results of reward and retribution and so on. This article firstly analyzes the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). It secondly illustrates the view of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and it also reviews the responses of the native religions in China to Catholic view of rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the sameness and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As to the intentional to do goods, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement of promoting good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, there were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

The Reception History of The Seven Victories and the Localization of The Seven Victories Spiritual Cultivation

The Seven Victories is one of the most influential works in Catholic literature from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. The seven victories spiritual cultivation contained therein is the result of the localization of the practice of the Christian faith in the West. It is still a living tradition in the Christian religion and even in Western culture. Since the end of the Ming Dynasty, The Seven Victories has aroused significant repercussions in the ecclesiastical and academic worlds. Some scholars converted to Catholicism because of The Seven Victories and wrote preambles in response to it; some scholars wrote essays criticizing the ethical ideas of The Seven Victories; and some scholars were inspired by The Seven Victories to write about Confucian ideas of sin, the work of reform, and the liturgy of repentance. Together, these constitute the history of the reception of The Seven Victories in China. Through Confucian culture integration, Chinese Christian scholars have developed a localized interpretation of the seven victories spiritual cultivation, resulting in a localized Chinese spiritual cultivation of sin.

Digital Trans-Pacific Silk Road and Phases of China-Latin American Connectivity: From Silver to AI

In this paper, we aim to document and analyze the long arc of connectivity between China and Latin America. First, using analytical international trade and economic tools, we provide a new economic perspective of the First Globalization–-the Ming and early Qing China’s economic and business links with Latin America and Europe. Second, due to U.S. government trade policies toward China in the 1990s, the Second China’s Globalization was ushered in with its entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO). During this second phase, China exchanged manufactured goods with minerals and resources from Latin America. Finally, the tough technology and trade stance by the Trump and Biden Administrations prompted China to intensify the third phase of China interaction with Latin America. For the 2020s and beyond, one important pillar of the Third China-Latin America-Europe Globalization is heightened efforts for China to increase its digital-AI, telecommunication and platform business presence and access into the Latin American markets. To enrich our analysis, we will provide Chinese-style digital-AI business and economic models to help illustrate our discussions. Throughout our paper, we want to point out that government policies were instrumental in bringing forth these Three Globalizations that involve China-Latin America-Europe.

Western Classical Learning and the Protestant Missionaries: Revival in China and Korea in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries

It has been observed that since the Early Qing Dynasty, the eastward spread of Western classics has been in decline; this article aims to looks at how Protestant missionaries helped to revive it in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. First, this study examines the circumstances that Protestant missionaries faced upon arriving in China and describes the challenges, opportunities, and issues they encountered when attempting to spread Western classics as part of their missionary effort. Second, this article reveals the strategies Protestant missionaries employed to revive the Western classics, with a focus on the utilization of the translated literature, press, and academic institutions. Third, this article explores the ways the spread of Western classics by the missionaries of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century outshone the achievements of their predecessors of the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Unlike the missions through secular knowledge in China, the spread of Protestantism in Korea took place in a more direct manner. This comparative study in the last section highlights the importance of each country’s endowment in terms of the method and effectiveness of missionary efforts.

Analytical Study of Polychrome Clay Sculptures in the Five-Dragon Taoist Palace of Wudang, China

During the Ming Dynasty, the Five-Dragon Palace functioned as a royal Taoist temple set atop one of China’s holiest Taoist mountains, Wudang Mountain. Two tower polychrome sculptures with exquisite craftsmanship have remained over the centuries. In this study, the painting materials and the techniques used to construct these sculptures were analyzed through multiple characterization methods, including optical microscope (OM) observations, micro-Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM−EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (μ−FTIR), and pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py−GC/MS). The results revealed that the pigments used in these sculptures included red pigments, which were composed of mercury (II) sulfide (cinnabar or vermillion), minium (Pb3O4), and hematite (Fe2O3); green pigments, which included atacamite and botallackite (Cu2Cl(OH)3), and blue pigments, which comprised smalt (CoO·nSiO2) and azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2). The white base layer was composed of quartz and mica minerals combined with gypsum or plant fiber, and the gold foil was adhered to the surface using heated tung oil. In addition, a special multi−layer technique was applied, with red under the golden gilding, white under the blue layer, and gray and black under the green layer. Drying oil was used as a binder for lead-containing pigments. This study offers substantial proof of reliable techniques to use in the continuing conservation of these sculptures, and it also serves as a foundation to determine if they can be dated to the late Ming or early Qing Dynasty (17th century).

Interrogating the Drunkards and Representing Drunkenness in the Qing Law

Abstract The consumption of shaojiu or distilled liquor played a significant role in Qing legal culture and contributed to a rise in alcohol-related crimes. Qing officials’ attitudes towards intoxication not only influenced their judgments on many cases, but also reflected important trends of popular beliefs, notions, and practices that constituted shared knowledge and feelings between ordinary people and judges. This paper examines the transformation of Qing judicial practices and concerns regarding alcohol intoxication and crimes, arguing that specific cultural value and ideas that underpinned the public configuration of drinking behaviour during the Qing period contributed to a social pathology around intoxication. Due to the lack of a consistent interpretation of the effects of alcohol on the mind, early Qing officials tended to be lenient towards intoxicated offenders. However, mid-Qing law-makers and rulers recognized the serious administrative concerns associated with heavy drinking and began to conceptualize it as a serious social problem.

The Crying Statue in Early Qing Drama

Should the theatrical fantasy of a statue coming to life involve an actor performing the role of a thing, or a prop taking the place of a human? Proceeding from contests between Hong Sheng 洪昇 (1645–1704) and acting troupes over the staging of the “Crying Statue” 哭像 (Kuxiang) scene in his dramatic masterpiece Palace of Lasting Life (Changsheng dian 長生殿), this article examines how the figure of the living icon became a focal point in broader struggles to conceptualize the relationship between theater and rituals of mourning. Actors staged this complicated scene as an “auspicious sacrifice” (jiji 吉祭), one that foregrounds the transcendence of love over lifeless matter. Hong, conversely, insists on the function of the scene as an “unpropitious rite” (xiongdian 凶奠), a solemn meditation on mortality and the collective expression of grief. By redirecting focus from the object to the space and social dynamics of mourning, Hong questions the drive to bestow on things a life that is not their own.