Early Nineteenth Century Research Articles

Richard Kirwan a [united] Irish man of science in Europe

The late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries have long been considered as a formative period for modern Irish political traditions such as nationalism, republicanism and unionism. For Europe it was the time of a turnover in science moving from observation to experiment and from speculation to fact. Richard Kirwan was a well known natural philosopher in Europe and a respected man of science in his time. Throughout all the wars, he was connected with his colleagues in a network reaching across Europe and even to America. Using a few examples, this article is intended to provide an insight how the network worked in a time that was marked by political conflicts and revolutionary events in both science and social life.

Novel evidence that elk were historically native to the Sierra Nevada, and recent range expansions into the region.

Elk (Cervus canadensis) have been considered non-native to the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California and Nevada. However, elk have steadily increased their range southward from the Cascade Range into the northern Sierra Nevada over the last century. Recent reports also reveal Rocky Mountain elk moving northwards into the southern Sierra Nevada. Dispersals of lone bull elk from 2019-2022 have occurred to the central Sierra Nevada south of Lake Tahoe. These recent range expansions of elk herds and long-distance dispersals of individual elk raised questions about the possible historical presence of elk throughout this mountain range. Herein we conducted a broad investigation into historical newspaper accounts and other early explorer and naturalist observer records, museum specimens, Late Holocene zooarchaeological records, and indirect evidence including toponomastic references and Native American ethnographic and ethnolinguistic information. Taken in total, a variety of data sources suggest elk inhabited portions of the Sierra Nevada and the adjacent northwest Great Basin from the Late Holocene through historical times. Positive records were not numerous, suggesting that historically elk were not abundant, and nearly extirpated during the California Fur Rush of the early nineteenth century.

The bi-musical subject: Dwarkanath Tagore and European music in early-nineteenth century Calcutta

ABSTRACT What was the Indians’ early encounter with European music like? How did they access the music of the coloniser and get socialised in it? Following Dwarkanath Tagore’s engagements with European music in early-19th century Calcutta, this essay maps the sites and spaces of western music in the city through which the contemporary Bengali elite first got exposed to the music that their colonial masters had brought into the subcontinent. In conceptually framing this process, it borrows the concept of ‘bi-musicality’ from ethnomusicology and repurposes it as a historical analytic to understand the new and emergent form of musicality that was organic to the colonial encounter in India and constitutively modern.

The Orangist Appropriation of Erasmus

The attribution of an Erasmian spirit to William of Orange is tenuous but has nevertheless been made consistently since the early twentieth century. This article makes use of reception theory to connect this association to events of the early nineteenth century that happened in response to the French dominance in the Netherlands and their subsequent expulsion. In 1810 and 1813 Rotterdam Orangists and opponents of the French presence appropriated the Erasmus statue in the city for their own cause by adorning it with orange accessories and by attaching short verses to it. The repetitive recollection of these events throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century culminated in the attribution of an Erasmian mind to William of Orange, who was himself associated with Orangism as of the twentieth century. While the initial Orangist actions were local and public endeavours, the association gradually entered the national political and academic sphere in the twentieth century. This transfer is exemplary for the changeability of ‘isms’ such as Orangism and Erasmianism. This article therefore ultimately emphasizes that besides the caution it requires, this changeability provides opportunities for reception histories.

The Siamese sugar trade during the first half of the nineteenth century: Trade pattern, business operations and state policies

ABSTRACT This article recounts the story of the Siamese sugar trade in the first half of the nineteenth century. Many scholars have pointed out that the expansion of the Siamese sugar economy was a result of local Chinese production skills and the Siamese elite’s policy to encourage sugar exports for state income. The expansion of the Siamese sugar trade, however, was also due to external factors. This article examines the changing world sugar trade pattern starting in the late eighteenth century and how Siam participated in this new opportunity by relying on its production capacity and transoceanic commercial networks operated by Western and Indian firms to supply Siamese sugar to the global market. The study also demonstrates the Siamese adaptation to participate in the world economy when the Southeast Asian region became integrated into the free trade system in the early nineteenth century. The Siamese sugar trade continued for only a half century and then declined by the 1860s due to several obstacles preventing the growth of sugar production and its ability to produce significant profits in the world sugar market.

Hidden From History: Children and Young People in the Woollen Mills of the Stroud Valleys in the Early Nineteenth Century

The Stroud area of Gloucestershire was a major producer of woollen cloth up to the late nineteenth century. This article describe the roles that children and young people played in the industry. It fills a gap in local historiography; and shows that over the 1830s the pattern of children’s employment in the mills of the area changed such that by the end of the decade, following legal restrictions on working hours for children, those under 13 were rarely employed. This contrasts with the woollen industry in the West Riding of Yorkshire where many children remained in the workforce. The article also argues that distinguishing between ‘children’ and ‘young people’ is neccessary in the context of the emotive phrase ‘child labour’.

"Frequent Self-Examination Is the Duty of All": Practical Religion, Moral Improvement, and Transatlantic Protestantism

Abstract: Practicing Protestants sought moral perfection through innovative means of self-development during the eighteen and early nineteenth centuries. The philosophical, cultural and religious changes that emerged from the Protestant Reformation and Enlightenment influenced transatlantic Protestantism. Evangelical religion and new sectarian groups appeared simultaneously and dialectically to the emergence of liberal thought, democratic politics and scientific advancement. The high-level musings of prominent philosophers of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe trickled down to common practitioners, who engaged in new patterns of religiosity. Through spiritual performances, habitual methods, and regimented schedules, Protestants customized their individual programs for moral progress and spiritual enlightenment. Pictorial and published works served as devices to evoke, maintain and advance their faith through reading, prayer, meditation, and diet. Recording their activities and assessing their successes and failures, the individual plans detailed here were part of a continuum of spirituality and rationality to perform piety on one's own terms and for the benefit of others. These Protestants combined Christian concepts with Enlightenment ideals to pursue autonomous, aspirational, and tailored approaches to self-discipline and spiritual insight.

The Provenance of a Pali- and Thai-Language Manuscript at the Rollins College Library: A Buddhist Book of Merit and Its Long Journey from Southeast Asia to America

Abstract: Through researching the provenance of a Buddhist manuscript written in the Pali and Thai languages currently held at Rollins, this article seeks to answer the question of how a religious document created in Thailand ended up in a liberal arts college library in America. Regarded as an act of devotion by many Buddhist followers in Southeast Asia, the use of folding manuscripts (samut khoi) has been observed for centuries. The folding manuscripts served as handbooks and chanting manuals for Buddhist monks, who often recited in religious ceremonies while paying tributes to the deceased, with the hope of reincarnation in a heavenly realm. Acquired by Henry Harkness while serving in the British colonial forces in Asia in the early nineteenth century and later donated by Howard Kelly in 1932 to support Professor Edwin Grover's course, The History of Books, at Rollins College, the large leporello manuscript contains five Pali texts in Khom script and one Thai text in Khom Thai script. Both scripts are variations of ancient Khmer script and have been extensively used in Thailand. The long journey of this samut khoi from Thailand to America not only shows the growth of Buddhism and the popular religious practice in Southeast Asia, but also reflects the colonial history in Asia and the rise of "Oriental Studies" in the West. By focusing on the background of the Pali- and Thai-language manuscript and through careful examinations of both Henry Harkness and Howard Kelly's lives, this article also sheds light on the practice of manuscript collection in the Western tradition and the act of philanthropy in America.

Islamization of Natural Sciences

Islamic science, grounded in the Holy Quran and the Sunnah, thrived for over twelve centuries before facing cultural and civilizational crises in the early nineteenth century. By the early twentieth century, the decline peaked with the fall of the Ottoman sultanate and the division of Muslim lands by European powers. Modern Western civilization, shaped by the Renaissance and Enlightenment, prioritized scientific inquiry, empiricism, and freedom, but was also rooted in atheism, agnosticism, nihilism, and ethical relativism. This led to significant progress during the Industrial Revolutions. While the West celebrated scientific advancement, the Muslim world struggled to keep pace, resulting in an inferior position during interactions with the West. The 20th century introduced modern science to the Islamic world, facilitated by expanded education systems, such as the universities in Istanbul and Cairo established in 1900 and 1925. This led to challenges, including naturalism and social Darwinism, which conflicted with Islamic beliefs. Efforts to harmonize science with Islam resulted in diverse viewpoints among Muslim scholars. Nonetheless, the Muslim world’s scientific progress remains limited, as evidenced by low scientific output, research expenditures, and the number of researchers and engineers, highlighting concerns about contemporary scientific illiteracy.

Rapid morphological change in UK populations of Impatiens glandulifera

The highly invasive Impatiens glandulifera (Himalayan balsam) is one of the most prolific and widespread invasive plants in the British Isles. Introduced in the early nineteenth century, it has now been reported in almost every vice county across the UK and is a fierce competitor that has adverse effects on the local community structure. Despite the negative impacts that invaders like I. glandulifera have on local communities, there have been very few studies which address the morphological changes that invasive plant populations have undergone since their initial introduction. This is the first study of its kind to investigate the morphological changes that have occurred in I. glandulifera. 315 herbarium specimens dating from 1865 to 2017 were used to measure changes in morphological traits such as leaf size, flower length and stomatal characteristics. We found that since 1865, there has been a significant reduction in overall leaf size, a significant reduction in stomatal density and a significant increase in the overall flower length. These results highlight the importance of monitoring the evolutionary change in prolific alien species over the course of their invasion, providing useful insights into changes in competitive ability which may prove useful in managing dispersal and providing options for potential management.

The nineteenth century evolution of the threshing machine in Britain

Manual farm work with the traditional flail, beating out grain from the sheaf-corn, was an arduous, labour-intensive task. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, machines (driven by water, wind or horse-power) started to take over—firstly in Scotland and northern England, then further south. Farm workers, losing their winter-time employment with the flail, rose up in 1830 in anger against the machines. Their riots and disorder were violently repressed and threshing machine development resumed. New machines were proudly displayed at the 1851 Great Exhibition. Improvements over the following years concentrated on steam-powered machines, and on achieving better power utilisation and cleaner grain separation. Competitive trials—and careful measurements of efficiency—played a major role in machine development. The threshing machine became a widely visible symbol of technological progress in agriculture and contributed substantially to Britain’s growing agricultural engineering industry.

Animal Portraiture in the Shah and Rana Era

In the art history of Nepal, the portrayal of animals was never the primary subject until the late medieval period. But animals were depicted as mount of gods and goddesses incommon practice. Independent animal portraitures are seen for the first time in the Shah period. In the National Art Museum of Bhaktapur, a collection of forty-eight distinct animal portraits has been available. There are two types of animal portraiture: mythical creatures and natural fauna. Mythical beings are śārdūla, simha, śarabha, and vyāla, whereas natural fauna are wild animals available in Nepal. Mythical creatures are mostly inspired by Persia, Central Asia as well as the Far East, whereas natural fauna is influenced by Pahari, Mughal, and Mewar artistic traditions. Animals are depicted engaging in fights, chases, and brawls, based on the animal kingdom. Among them, bull fight scenes commissioned by Rana Bahadur Shah, depicted by Nepalese artists. The background of the painting reveals a portrayal of mountains, trees, rocks, rivers, and other natural elements of Paubhāḥ painting. In the early nineteenth century, Nepalese artists used to make copies by Nepali artists using a camera lucida, drawing on paper with pencil, and filling with black ink or colors. Under Jang Bahadura Rana, Nepalese artists observed the photos, sketched them onto the canvas, and then applied colors.

The dispersal of monastic libraries in the early nineteenth century: Buxheim and Karakallou

This article discusses the dramatic dispersal of monastic libraries in Europe and the Christian East during the early nineteenth century through two contrasting examples. These are: (1) the 1423 St Christopher woodblock print and other early examples of fifteenth-century printing, formerly the property of the Charterhouse at Buxheim in Swabia but purchased in 1803 by Alexander Horn for George John, 2nd Earl Spencer; and (2) a series of Byzantine manuscripts, formerly the property of the monastery of Karakallou on Mount Athos but purchased in 1837 by Robert Curzon, later 14th Baron Zouche. It identifies changing perceptions surrounding the value and use of books on the parts of both monks and collectors as central to this moment and explores the different – but often surprisingly similar – ways in which books left monastic ownership in western vs. eastern contexts.

Speaking with Devils: Sino-European Vernaculars and Translingual Communication before the Treaty Ports

This article examines the dynamics of Chinese–Western translingual contact in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, with particular attention to the problem of oral communication between native speakers of Sinitic and European languages. Despite a robust body of scholarship on the economic and political dimensions of Chinese and Euro-American interaction in the decades preceding the First Opium War, the routine linguistic practices and adaptations that mediated everyday commercial and social exchanges remain only superficially understood. Critical to such exchanges was the development, circulation, and adoption of Chinese pidgins (trade languages) as vernacular instruments for negotiating not just business matters but a range of grassroots interactions and relationships that developed out of the South China coast’s position as a nexus for global interchange. A deeper understanding of these linguistic dynamics provides new insights into the interwoven histories of trade, migration, and translingual enterprise and offers a more nuanced picture of Sino-Western relations before the First Opium War.

‘Pirates’, Potentates, and Merchant Petitioning in the Early Nineteenth Century Straits Settlements

Abstract In the nineteenth century Straits of Malacca, one of the globe’s most significant trading crossroads, merchants were integral to imperial stability and growth. Indeed, historians of the British empire have long sought to understand how colonial governments turned to merchants, both British and Asian, to extend commercial networks, establish local hierarchies and extend processes of state-building. Yet, merchants’ conceptions of their relationship to, and place within, colonial governance are less well understood. This article examines the emergence of colonial merchant politics in the British controlled Straits Settlements in the early nineteenth century. It concentrates on petitions produced by Asian merchants who demanded greater intervention by East India Company authorities in matters of maritime security and diplomacy. Petitions enabled the merchants of Singapore and Penang to inject their political and commercial visions into processes of colonial state-building. Moreover, these cases demonstrate that imperial margins — geographic, bureaucratic, linguistic and political — were productive spaces in which colonial power dynamics between state and society were contested and took on new meanings.

Russia as a Frontier of Europe in the British Educational Games of the Georgian Age

In the eighteenth century, an entertainment industry grew in England, including educational games such as playing cards, puzzles, and board games. The educational aspect implied that the game was not only a way of entertainment, but also a source of knowledge. The author examines the image of the Russian Empire shaped by British games of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He gives special attention to the problem of the player’s interaction with the game reality, analyses the implicit properties of geographical spaces, which manifest themselves when, depending on the characteristics of the “place”, the player is asked to perform a certain action. The author divides the games of the period under review into three types, namely card games, board games designed as geographical maps, and board games with an individual playing field and booklet. He concludes that, regardless of the game format, the traditional early modern division of Russia into Asian and European parts was reflected in its image in all the games under consideration. The European part of Russia, as a rule, was described in the same tones as other regions of Europe. Asian Russia could be endowed with a variety of qualities. In some games it could be described as inhabited by ignorant nomadic tribes of Tartaria, in others – as frosty and deserted Siberia. Sometimes these characteristics were combined, but it is clear that the fragmentation into the “European” and “Asian” worlds presented in British educational games influenced significantly the formation of identification patterns among British youth of the Georgian era.

Human Tales on the Pathless Sea? Imperial Subjectivities and Exploration Ship Tracks in European Maritime Mapping, c.1500–c.1800

Abstract During the Renaissance, Europeans began to mark sea journeys on maps and charts as lines or dotted lines—‘ship tracks’. This new graphical depiction of voyages, which flanked and often replaced verbal itinerary descriptions, ultimately lies behind present-day route-marking devices, but it has not been much investigated by historians. Tracing its development between the sixteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, through cartographic sources, hydrographical manuals and voyage accounts, this article argues that ship tracks constituted a fundamental turning point in European understandings of human movement and influence in the world. In particular, the tracks of late eighteenth-century imperial explorers, built through novel accuracy claims, established a unique cognitive and ontological link between representation and reality and between human agency and the natural world, and explicitly embedded the perspectival subjectivity of storytelling into the alleged objectivity of ‘scientific’ geometrisations of the globe. As such, tracks are useful tools with which to understand and deconstruct the roots of ‘modernity/coloniality’. They also reveal the extent to which maritime history holds important keys to the past: as a representational and directional device, the modern journey track owes much of its ancestry to confrontation with the liquid and supposedly ‘pathless’ sea.

The History of Reception as a Battlefield: French uses of “Spinoza” in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

The French reception of Spinoza during the nineteenth and twentieth century shows that what we call the “reception” of a corpus must be understood in a quite different way than the word suggests. The receiver must be disposed to make use of the corpus, and this attitude is determined by the receiver’s position within the structure of the academic or intellectual field. Spinoza was received in France in the early nineteenth century because it played a strategical role in the debate about pantheism as an atheism. But the “Spinoza” that was inherited was a corpus of works, while a certain reading of it had been elaborated in another context for other goals, namely, that of German idealism. Reception is not merely passive: the receivers impose their own structure to what affects them. At first, “Spinoza” was a figure or a label that played a role in a battlefield. This is still true for what we may call (albeit not in an ontological sense) the “materialist” reception in the 1960s. Yet, it was not doomed to give a purely imaginative knowledge of “Spinoza”: a better knowledge of the corpus, international exchanges between scholars of all over the world, and history of reception itself, made a rational knowledge of Spinozism, and even a singular understanding of Spinoza, possible.

The Embassy as an Extension of the Diplomatic Persona

Summary Built by the architect Louis Montoyer in Vienna between 1803 and 1808 for the Russian ambassador to Austria, Andrey Razumovsky, the famous Razumovsky Palace would become the centre of anti-Napoleonic diplomacy in the early nineteenth century and a fixture in Vienna’s lively cultural scene. This article first discusses how the ambassador used his embassy as a meeting place for formal and informal diplomacy that contributed to Russia’s positioning against Napoleon long before the Grande Armée invaded the empire. Secondly, the architectural outline of the Razumovsky Palace is linked to the different cultural functions of the embassy that underpinned and strengthened Razumovsky’s diplomatic network. The final section of the article explores the role of the Razumovsky Palace as a determinant factor in the ambassador’s decision to leave diplomatic service and remain in Vienna until his death in 1836.

Reading Wollstonecraft after Godwin’s Memoirs: Wollstonecraft in Circulating, Subscription, and Private Libraries, 1799–1842

ABSTRACT Following Mary Wollstonecraft’s death in 1798, her grieving husband William Godwin made public many of the details of Wollstonecraft’s highly unconventional life. The ensuing backlash seemed to ensure that Wollstonecraft’s major works ceased to be reprinted for a period of roughly forty years. This article contributes to efforts to revise narratives of Wollstonecraft’s early nineteenth century reception by asking how and where readers, in the absence of new editions, might have accessed the books themselves. A survey of 41 circulating and subscription library catalogues dated between 1799 and 1842 reveals that, despite scholarly assumptions otherwise, Wollstonecraft’s works remained widely available. Even when books left the library, they did not necessarily disappear, as a copy of Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman that moved from a circulating library into a private collection attests. Placing the information in these catalogues in conversation with what can be gleaned from this copy of the work, this article argues that the durability of the hand-press book complicates the narrative of Wollstonecraft’s posthumous reputation.