Early Greek Research Articles

Returning Heroes: Greek and Native Interaction in (Pre‐)Colonial South Italy and Beyond

SummaryThe cultural interaction between the native population of south Italy and the first immigrants from Greece and the Levant in the early first millennium BC has been exhaustively discussed in recent years. In most cases the debate has been focused on the native side of the encounter, on imports and imitations of Greek and Levantine products found in Italy and on the effects that these foreign goods and the ideologies attached to them had on the local population. Only rarely, however, has the question been asked of how the encounter affected the Greek and Levantine participants. New evidence from the necropolis of Francavilla Marittima, a pivotal point in the early trade and exchange network across the Mediterranean, reveals the adoption of Greek drinking and dining customs based on the notion of ritualized guest‐friendship by the local elite as early as the third quarter of the eighth century BC. As Greek xenia functions on the basis of equal rank of the participants involved, it follows from this discovery that Greek aristocrats must have been present in the pre‐colonial world from a very early time. In the second part of the paper the question is raised of the material evidence in Greece and the Aegean world for these early contacts with the native Italic population, focusing in particular on the evidence from Eretria, one of the leading powers in the early Greek exploration of the West.

A Sympotic Self: Instruction through Inebriation in Anacreon

As early as the fifth century, Anacreon was the poet of wine, love, and song; even his death—choking on a pip—is attributed to the grape. The fact that the symposion looms large in the extant fragments is, therefore, hardly surprising. In this article, I examine Anacreon’s sympotic verse and its moral quality. While the ethical character of Xenophanes’ and Theognis’ sympotic fragments has been acknowledged, most scholars consider Anacreon as a poet of love, rather than of moral instruction. Recently, Lear and Hobden have begun to address the moral and instructive character of Anacreon’s verse. I build on these analyses by examining the Anacreontic speaker’s presentation of moral value through his own person; there are 46 first-person statements in Anacreon, an important fact considering the narrative and psychological potency of “I” statements in early Greek lyric. In contrast to gnomic statements that purport to be generalized prescriptions, Anacreon’s performative “I” offers an alternative mode of moralizing delivery. These first persons, however, are not the same person: Anacreon gives a multitude of perspectives on appropriate sympotic behaviour. I read the Anacreontic speaker’s diverse and changing persona as a challenging and embodied moral perspective, which destabilizes the idea of a true self, and consequently denies the stereotyping of ancient poetic biography. By enunciating Anacreon’s songs, the speaker puts his own body and individuality into play in the “educative” space of the symposion. In Anacreon’s verse, the self itself becomes the space on which sympotic instructions—moral imperatives—are inscribed and displayed to others.

Anatolian linguistic influences in Early Greek (1500–800 BC)? Critical observations against sociolinguistic and areal background

Anatolian linguistic influences in Early Greek (1500–800 BC)? Critical observations against sociolinguistic and areal background

The Gods Rich in Praise. Early Greek and Mesopotamian Religious Poetry (Oxford Classical Monographs), written by Metcalf, C.

The Gods Rich in Praise. Early Greek and Mesopotamian Religious Poetry (Oxford Classical Monographs), written by Metcalf, C.

The Augment Use of Εειπε and Ειπε in Early Epic Greek: An Evidential Marker?

This article is part of an ongoing investigation into the meaning, origin and use of the augment in Early Greek prose and poetry and discusses the use and absence of the augment in the forms of the simplex ἔειπον/εἶπον in early epic Greek (Homer, Hesiod and the Homeric Hymns). I first explain why this verb was chosen and then proceed to determining the corpus. I start by listing the criteria to determine which forms are metrically guaranteed; when a form is not secured by the metre, I use the “Barrett–Taida” method, which analyses metrically insecure forms by comparing them to the metrically secure forms of the same paradigm and to the attestations and positions in the verse. The corpus that is thus established is then analysed by using previous scholarship on syntactic constraints (Drewitt–Beck’s clitic rule and Kiparsky’s “conjunction reduction” rule) and on the semantics (Koch–Basset’s distinction of narrative versus speech and Platt–Bakker–Mumm’s theory of recent past versus Hoffmann’s remote and timeless past); special attention is also paid to the exceptions. At the end, I investigate if the augment use in epic Greek can be explained as a visual evidential marker.

Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought by Eric S. Nelson

Reviewed by: Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought by Eric S. Nelson David Chai (bio) Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought. By Eric S. Nelson. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017. Pp. x + 344. Hardcover $114.00. ISBN 978–1-3500–0255-5. Eric Nelson's Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought opens with the following: "The work before you is an interpretive journey through the historical reception of Chinese and Buddhist philosophy in modern German thought, focusing in particular--albeit not exclusively--on the early twentieth century. Its intent is to describe and analyze the intertextual nexus of intersecting sources for the sake of elucidating implications and critical models for intercultural hermeneutics and intercultural philosophy. The possibility of such a philosophy is confronted by the persistent myth and prejudice that philosophy is and can only be a unique and exclusive Western spiritual achievement" (p. 1). The book is directed by "the question of who can philosophize, and who counts as a philosopher" (p. 2), a quintessential question indeed, but I wonder if it dawned on Nelson that this question never occurred to the people of Asia, rendering it an exclusively Western line of approach. The same can be said when Nelson writes: "The much-needed emancipation of philosophy from ethnocentrism, often cloaked in the language of a false universality, requires what could be called 'a critique of European reason,' or a deconstruction of the Eurocentric conception of rationality, which is simultaneously an internal immanent critique of the dialectic of Western philosophy and an exposure to the exteriority of its--in this case East Asian--others" (p. 3). Is this not also true of the lack of Chinese receptivity towards Western thought for much of its history? Until the arrival of the Jesuits in the 16th century, the Chinese lacked the means to converse with Western philosophy, Buddhism notwithstanding. Of course, Nelson is only concerned with the modern Western reception of East Asian thought, but this doesn't make my point moot. Indeed, if the West can engage the ancient traditions of the East, and be accused of misrepresenting or misconstruing their ideas, why is there no similar criticism being made of the modern Chinese reception of classical Western thought? Perhaps the reason is as Nelson says: "A more genuine encounter and dialogue is constrained and undermined by the colonial and racial history of modern Western philosophy" (p. 5). [End Page 1] Chapter 1 "traces episodes in the story of European Confucianism by exploring historical examples of the role and interpretation of Confucianism in modern German philosophy in general and in early twentieth-century thought in particular" (p. 16). A richly detailed historical and intellectual account, it is necessary for Nelson to provide this as it sets the stage for the analysis that follows in subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 examines Zhang Junmai's (1886–1969) relationship with Rudolf Eucken (1846–1926) and Hans Driesch (1867–1941), and how their life-philosophy influenced Zhang's own intercultural thinking. In light of the social and political chaos engulfing China at the turn of the 19th century, many Chinese intellectuals turned to the West for inspiration and potential solutions to the identity crisis sweeping their country. That Zhang turned to the life-philosopher Eucken and the neo-vitalist Driesch is both surprising and also fascinating because Zhang and Eucken co-authored a book in German in 1922 entitled: Das Lebensproblem in China und Europa (The Problem of Life in China and Europe). Nelson describes their collaborative work as "perceiving affinities between early Greek and Chinese thinking, particularly in their Socratic and Confucian moments, as critical reflection concerning the individual and social-political formation of life through self-cultivation and moral government" (p. 50). Such qualities were absent from the China of Zhang's time, deserted when the Qing empire collapsed a decade beforehand. Zhang, therefore, "articulates a modern Confucian philosophy that has learnt from and is open to learning and adopting from Western modernity, in particular from Kantian philosophy and liberal-constitutional and social democratic political thought, in the formation of a distinctive Chinese modernity achieved through a form of enlightenment suited...

Avenging Vipers: Tragedy and Succession in Nicander's <em>Theriaca</em>

This article examines Nicander's description of the mating habits of the viper as an example of how his biological information and his literary engagement with earlier Greek poetry influence each another. Nicander claims that female vipers kill their mates during copulation, and are then in turn killed by their babies during childbirth, “avenging” their father's death. I trace the intertexts that shape the passage from Herodotus to Aeschylus to Lycophron. Allusions to these authors allow Nicander to draw parallels between the violent reproductive cycle of vipers and literary succession of Hellenistic poets engaging with Classical authors of the past.

Invocations of the Muse in Homer and Hesiod: A Cognitive Approach

AbstractIn this paper, I offer a cognitive analysis of the invocations of the Muse in earliest Greek epic poetry that is based on recent advances in cognitive science in general and the cognitive science of religion in particular. I argue that the Muse-concept most likely originated in a feeling of dependence on an external source of information to provide the singer with the subject matter of their song. This source of information is conceptualised as an ontological type (or template) ‘person’ by means of the hyperactive agency detection, and the Muse’s full access to strategic information, along with other characteristics, establishes her as a minimally counter-intuitive concept (that is to say a concept that conforms to most of our intuitive expectations and runs counter to a few of them), which, in turn, significantly increases the probability of the acquisition and transmission of the Muse-concept within the culture.

Discourse Markers in the Septuagint and Early Koine Greek with Special Reference to the Twelve

A dissertation exploring the use of a selection of discourse markers – δέ, eἰ/ἐὰν μή, ἀλλά, ἀλλ ἤ, μέν – in Koine Greek and the Septuagint of the minor prophets.

Inner Purity and Pollution in Greek Religion, volume 1: Early Greek Religion. By AndrejPetrovic and IvanaPetrovic. Pp. xvi, 337, Oxford University Press, 2016, £60.00.

The Heythrop JournalVolume 58, Issue 6 p. 961-962 BOOK REVIEW Inner Purity and Pollution in Greek Religion, volume 1: Early Greek Religion. By Andrej Petrovic and Ivana Petrovic. Pp. xvi, 337, Oxford University Press, 2016, £60.00. Robin Waterfield, Robin Waterfield Lakonia, GreeceSearch for more papers by this author Robin Waterfield, Robin Waterfield Lakonia, GreeceSearch for more papers by this author First published: 10 October 2017 https://doi.org/10.1111/heyj.12770Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume58, Issue6November 2017Pages 961-962 RelatedInformation

Notes on Contributors

Notes on Contributors

Rethinking Economics and Education: Exponential Growth and Post‐Growth Strategies

AbstractEducation is increasingly vocational and structured to serve the ongoing exponential increase in economic growth. Climate change is an outcome of these same economic values and praxes. Attempts to shift these values and our approach to technology are continually absorbed and overcome by the pressing motif of economic growth. In this article, Ruth Irwin uses Martin Heidegger's concept of the technological enframing of modernity to view economic growth. John Maynard Keynes's notion of economic growth (which he called the “multiplier effect”) has impacted the pace of consumerism that now permeates every aspect of knowing about the world we live in. Irwin asks us to think through technological enframing anew by looking to an early mechanical Greek artifact, the Antikythera mechanism, which depicts a cyclical notion of time used by ancient cultures to define the rhythm of economic productivity. The earth‐centric cosmos embodied by this mechanism helped the Mesopotamian economy stay within the parameters of the local ecology and demonstrates that cyclical economic growth may enable a civilization to maintain a steady state over time and survive for millennia. An earth‐centric cosmology creates a different set of values, one that emphasizes the need to regulate the pace of consumerism rather than allowing it free rein “as by an Invisible Hand.” The role of education in this exploration is twofold: first, it is a pivotal site for cultural exploration and transformation; and second, the expectations of the state strictly limit the forms education can take, so that as long as promoting economic growth defines state expectations, education will remain subservient to these values. If we aim to overcome climate change, Irwin concludes, we need to transform the expectations for education from society as well as from teachers.

Body and Mind in Early China and Greece

This article surveys several early Chinese and Greek representations of the self, with particular interest in relations between body and mind. I begin with Edward Slingerland’s application of recent research in conceptual metaphor analysis to early Chinese texts, his arguments on early Chinese root metaphors for self and an important study of mind-body dualism in early China. Next I introduce metaphors of mind and body in texts from technical expertise traditions that Slingerland’s survey does not cover. The last section introduces three apparently comparable sets of early Chinese and Greek metaphors: (1) analogies between mind and body and ruler and subordinates; (2) metaphors of the body as a container in which the mind is somehow contained; and (3) the notion that a person is a set of balances between constituent elements.

HISTORICAL AND SYSTEMATIC CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE FOUR MOST BASIC PHILOSOPHICAL ASSERTIONS

Ponte Academic JournalJun 2017, Volume 73, Issue 6 HISTORICAL AND SYSTEMATIC CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE FOUR MOST BASIC PHILOSOPHICAL ASSERTIONSAuthor(s): Danie StraussJ. Ponte - Jun 2017 - Volume 73 - Issue 6 doi: 10.21506/j.ponte.2017.6.31 Abstract:One of the hall-marks of early Greek philosophy is that it commences with an awareness of certain basic aspects of reality. Reflecting on these aspects gave rise to recurrent issues, such as the problem of unity and diversity, the whole and its (cohering) parts as well as constancy and change – later on also captured in the opposition of being and becoming. Parmenides and his school characterized “being” mainly in spatial terms to which a metaphysical connotation is sometimes attached. Zeno, the Eleatic philosopher, best known for his paradoxes directed against multiplicity and motion, actually discovered the spatial whole-parts relation. Anaxagoras explored another significant insight in his claim that everything coheres with everything else. These developments paved the way for Aristotle to stipulate two criteria for continuity still reflected within contemporary set theory. What is noteworthy in this context is that the way in which Aristotle handled the problem of being and becoming caused him to restrict knowledge to conceptual knowledge, i.e., to knowledge constituted by universal features. According to this view of Aristotle what is individual withdraws itself from the grasp of conceptual knowledge. Then attention is given to some implications of the relationship between constancy and change, with particular reference to the nature of constant principles and the varying ways in which they could be applied in unique situations as well as to our awareness of identity. This analysis paves the way for an explanation of some analogical interconnections between different aspects. It also generated some crucial questions to the idea of a logic of change, followed by a concise assessment of the nature of monistic isms, specifically related to the aspects of number and space. In what then follows the distinction between concept and idea (conceptual knowledge and concept-transcending knowledge) is illuminated in order to substantiate the ultimate conclusion of the article regarding the four most basic “idea-statements” one can formulate about the universe. This is accomplished by showing that terms derived from number, space, movement and the physical aspects could be employed in a concept-transcending manner, expressed in the following four statements: (i) Everything is unique; (ii) Everything coheres with everything else (iii) Everything remains identical to itself; and (iv) Everything changes. One of the fascinating features of philosophical reflection is that the classical problems have a tendency to recur not only in philosophy but also within the various special sciences. That these problems are ultimately related to fundamental modes of explanation becomes apparent against the background of (early) Greek philosophy. Briefly analysing this legacy will enable us to highlight what arguably may be considered to be the four most basic statements a philosopher can formulate concerning reality. Download full text:Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution Username Password

Living in Infamy: Felon Disfranchisement and the History of American Citizenship by Pippa Holloway

Reviewed by: Living in Infamy: Felon Disfranchisement and the History of American Citizenship by Pippa Holloway Paula C. Johnson Living in Infamy: Felon Disfranchisement and the History of American Citizenship. By Pippa Holloway. Studies in Crime and Public Policy. ( New York and other cities: Oxford University Press, 2014. Pp. xviii, 236. $38.95, ISBN 978-0-19-997608-9.) Historian Pippa Holloway has written an impressive volume that speaks directly to our time. With the resurgence of regulations that create obstacles to [End Page 1001] voting and disparately impact people of color and poor communities, Holloway provides an incisive account of one of the primary bases for denying substantial numbers of citizens the right to vote. Living in Infamy: Felon Disfranchisement and the History of American Citizenship tells the story of restrictions on the voting rights of felons and former felons. The book is copiously researched, and it is rooted in narrative accounts and a historical, legal, and constitutional analysis of the role of infamy in citizenship and voting rights. Holloway focuses on the post–Civil War South from 1866 to the early twentieth century. She explains how a racist ideology has historically undergirded felon disenfranchisement policies and laws that disproportionately affect African American voters, even when such restrictions ostensibly apply to the larger population of felons and former felons. She advances two major arguments. First, she argues that denying voting rights was contingent on the condition of infamy. Determining infamy was often used as a pretext to deny voting rights based on race and also was extended to poor white people. Infamy, Holloway explains, defined citizenship and determined which citizens were and were not worthy of the franchise. These predicates were established in order to maintain racial and class subordination. Early Greek and Roman legal traditions deemed that certain criminal convictions resulted in "civil 'degradation'" (p. 5). The resultant loss of citizenship rights constituted a state of infamy. English common law had a detailed tradition under which infamy meant the loss of public standing and disqualification from civic participation, including court testimony, jury service, officeholding, and the right to vote. This concept was embraced with particular fervor in the southern United States. Hence, Holloway's second key argument focuses on the generalization of infamy, to disenfranchise anyone who has been incarcerated, regardless of race. Holloway's analysis demonstrates that southern and northern states held different views on citizenship, criminality, and the retributive and rehabilitative purposes of incarceration. These differences gave way, however, as states outside the South endorsed more punitive objectives and the widespread disenfranchisement of convicts. After the Civil War, the ratification of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments brought an end to slavery. Formerly enslaved African Americans were finally to be accorded equal status and rights as U.S. citizens. Yet Holloway meticulously demonstrates that analytical interplay between the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments was used to maintain a racial caste system. Both of these amendments conferred citizenship and suffrage rights to former slaves but included exceptions for criminal involvement and participation in rebellion. Holloway argues that the amendments were targeted at former members of the Confederacy. However, southern states refused to relinquish notions of white supremacy and simply transformed black citizens into criminals by using criminal codes that designated them as such and elevated misdemeanors to felonies. Thereby, the notion of black people as inherently infamous and unworthy of the vote was perpetuated in social, legal, constitutional, and judicial treatments. Holloway's book is an important contribution on a cornerstone of democratic participation—the right to vote. She has shown how the historical foundations of infamy set the stage for felon disenfranchisement and its [End Page 1002] disproportionate racial effects in the present day. Further, she has shown how socioeconomic class also was an impetus to deny the vote to poorer white people. Her book is essential reading. Paula C. Johnson Syracuse University College of Law Copyright © 2017 The Southern Historical Association

A Philosophical Analysis of the Impact of Racism in the Contemporary Society

In our contemporary society today, we are facing challenges because people look down on others. Some people believe that they are superior to others; therefore, they must control other human beings since others are inferior. These challenges take different names in different cultures. Names such as “Racism”, “Osu”, “Nazism” “Caste system”, “Colour”, “Apartheid”. This problem is in Germany, in America, South Africa and in Igbo land; it is because some people want to dominate others. But if we understand what authority really is (that is duty and service) this problem of racism will be eradicated. However, history proves that prior to the advent of capitalism, racism as a form of systematic oppression did not exist. This is because early Greeks and Romans were liberated societies although they advocated for slaves. Today, Racism is the order of the day. In this work, we are looking critically at the works written on racism in order to know its effect in the society and how to abolish racism.

Roman Festivals in the Greek East from the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era by Fritz Graf

Reviewed by: Roman Festivals in the Greek East from the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era by Fritz Graf Raymond Van Dam Fritz Graf. Roman Festivals in the Greek East from the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era. Greek Culture in the Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Pp. xvi, 363. $120.00. ISBN 978-1-107-09211-2. In the Roman Empire ceremonies originally associated with pagan gods continued to flourish even after the appearance of Christian emperors and the rise of bishops. One notable achievement of Fritz Graf’s excellent book is to highlight the abiding importance of traditional religious festivals for the vitality of civic [End Page 577] life in the Greek East during the first millennium a.d. Another is to analyze the continued celebration of festivals and the observance of a calendar organized around Roman holidays in terms of practices rather than beliefs. Even in a Christian society these festivals and their associated etiologies remained important for articulating the identities of urban communities. Already in the early empire Greek cities adopted festivals closely associated with the city of Rome. In Palestine, for instance, Jewish rabbis mentioned the Kalends at the beginning of the Roman year, imperial birthdays and accession days, and the Saturnalia at the end of the year. Some Greek cities also celebrated the foundation of Rome and the Capitolian games. Although cities certainly continued to promote their own civic festivals and athletic contests, “these local festivals that defined a single city went together with the festivals that marked the unity of the empire” (78). The adoption of Roman cults had political significance for Greek cities, since “the establishment of the festival [of the Kalends] in an autonomous city was a bottom-up affair in which the periphery responded to the center” (101). In 389 a law of Theodosius I defined the calendar for available court days in terms of both Christian holidays, such as Easter and Sundays in general, and traditional festivals, such as the Kalends and imperial anniversaries. The emperor may have been reaching out for the support of prominent senators at Rome, and at Antioch the orator Libanius praised his endorsement for the popular festival of the Kalends. Christian preachers, however, were upset. John Chrysostom recommended civil disobedience against participation in the lewd dances and songs; Asterius of Amaseia censured his congregation for choosing the merriment of the festival over attendance at church; Augustine of Hippo argued that fasting was preferable to feasting. But even after the canons of ecclesiastical councils condemned traditional festivals, Graf argues, emperors were inclined to push back. Emperors and bishops were playing to the same audiences: “underneath was also a question of power and influence, to be gained through the gratitude of the urban crowds” (162). Festivals imported from Rome therefore long survived in Greek cities, even if in modified formats. By the tenth century the Lupercalia at Constantinople ended with the charioteers racing . . . on foot! The household festival of the Roman Bruma developed into a winter festival that replaced the Saturnalia and its association with pagan deities. January remained the month of the Kalends during most of the Byzantine period. In fact, some aspects of the celebration of the Christian liturgy came to resemble the old pagan ceremonies. Christian festivals were extended, and they featured extensive processions. Surveys of long periods are always vulnerable to critiques of both the big themes and the small details. The ancient documentation for religious festivals is of course fragmentary, including inscriptions, sermons, law codes, conciliar canons, and hagiography. Sometimes the texts do require the sort of nuanced analysis that resembles conventional antiquarianism. But Graf’s arguments also tend to jumble the chronological particularity of this evidence and frequently link the stray data points into extended continuities, survivals, and even “Mediterranean constants” (294) that in turn challenge the possibility of understanding “people firmly embedded in their time and society” (8). The final chapters discuss the transition from pagan ideas about dreaming and magic to Christian attitudes. Despite the opposition of Christian clerics, ordinary believers still benefitted from dreams of healing, and the use of amulets and spells remained omnipresent. Graf suggests that this continued reliance on [End...

An Application of Software Engineering for Investigating the Language of Phaistos Disk

The Disk of Phaistos is a thirty-seven centuries old artifact, made of clay, which was discovered in 1908 at the Minoan palace of Phaistos (Crete). On its two sides, it bears the oldest known imprinted text of unknown content. The decipherment of this text is over a century-old unsolvable riddle, despite the various attempts for this purpose. Many of these attempts claim that the underlying language is a dialect of early Greek, yet each interpretation is different from any other. The purpose of this article is to describe the results of a decipherment algorithm, based on pattern matching of linguistic motifs, that investigates the possible Greek origin of the text by focusing on the language of Linear-B, which is the closest contemporary Greek dialect of Bronze Age Aegean.

Production Sites of Early Iron Age Greek Bronze Tripod Cauldrons: First Evidence from Neutron Activation Analysis of Casting Ceramics

Bronze tripod cauldrons were one of the most prestigious types of objects in Greece during the Early Iron Age (EIA). Because of its character as an exchange object with a value easy to assess, the tripod became an attribute used in the communication of personal status. Consequently, the distribution of archaeologically recovered tripods can be used to identify hotspots of elitist interaction. Fortunately, quite a lot of the extant tripod fragments have a clay core and/or show preserved residues of the casting molds on their surface. In our pilot study with 61 samples from Olympia and five samples from Kalapodi, it is shown that neutron activation analysis (NAA) allows a coherent internal chemical grouping of the clay pastes used in the ancient casting workshops. Furthermore, comparative material from workshop debris and also geological samples allow a geographical localization of many of the chemical groups. In general terms, NAA therefore seems to be an effective method to define production sites of artifacts cast in the lost wax technique. In the case of EIA tripods, sites and travel routes of workshops can be traced as well as travel routes of clients. This provides new hard data for modeling both the political and the economic structures of EIA Greece.

Induktive versus abduktive Rekonstruktion

Zusammenfassung The method of comparative reconstruction is considered as the best instrument to reveal the prehistory of individual languages or linguistic families. It is inductive (data-driven) and seems to be much more reliable as the concurring method of internal reconstruction. Still it has been overlooked that each comparative reconstruction - to be innovative - has to be based on an initial premise. Such a premise is always the result of an abductive conclusion as used in internal reconstruction. Thus each comparative reconstruction has a core consisting of internal reconstruction. For syntactical reconstruction the following premise seems to be suitable: Linguistic structures and their changes obey the principles of universal grammar (e. g. the Minimalistic Program) and of grammaticalization. This premise proves fruitful for the explanation of the Early Greek augment */e-/< *h1e-. The augment can be determined as an original particle in the CP layer of the sentence. Later on it is reanalysed as a temporal particle, becomes part of the vP and underlies univerbation with the verb.