Dynamic Wireless Charging Research Articles

Optimal Deployment of Dynamic Wireless Charging Lanes for Electric Vehicles considering the Battery Charging Rate

Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) technology enables the charging of electric vehicles (EVs) en route without the need for stopping on long-distance trips. Based on DWC technology, a dynamic wireless charging system (DWCS) concept is proposed to determine the number of DWC lanes and their locations and lengths considering varying battery charging rates. A two-stage approach is proposed to design the optimal DWCS. First, we propose a mixed-integer model with nonlinear constraints to determine the locations and lengths of the charging lanes. This model is further reformulated as a mixed-integer linear problem to make it suitable to solve with off-the-shelf commercial solvers (e.g., Gurobi). Next, we propose a method to obtain an approximately optimal solution for the number of lanes. Then, a numerical example from a freeway in Guangdong Province, China, is investigated to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed model and its effectiveness in reducing the construction costs.

Assessment of dynamic wireless charging based electric road system: A case study of Auckland motorway

• Calibration, and validation of a part of Auckland traffic network using AIMSUN. • Estimation of dynamic wireless charging length requirement in a traffic corridor. • Impact of traffic and energy parameters on the wireless charging length requirement. • Financial feasibility of DWC system with the plug-in charging system. Urbanization and the need to improve green mobility have paved the way for electric vehicle (EV) adoption that reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Investors have a critical role in incentivizing charging infrastructure to meet EV's charging needs immediately. Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) offers a viable solution to mitigate issues related to the limited driving range, higher battery capacity (resulting in higher cost), and longer charging time of EVs. This paper examines the impact of a DWC-based electric road system (ERS) on EV flow and energy consumption. A traffic simulation-based methodological framework is developed to evaluate the effect of DWC facilities on road networks. A case study is conducted for the Auckland motorway network using various scenarios to evaluate the performance of the ERS, including the financial feasibility of the DWC system compared with the existing plug-in charging system. It provides insights into the minimum length of DWC facilities and the spatial and temporal variations in energy demand, which can be helpful to public and private stakeholders in deciding the optimal strategy to implement DWC in transportation networks on a large scale.

Transmitting Side Power Control for Dynamic Wireless Charging System of Electric Vehicles

This paper proposes a new power control method in dynamic wireless charging systems for electric vehicles. A dual-loop controller is proposed to control charging power while the electric vehicle is moving without communication between the transmitting and receiving sides. The output power is estimated through the coupling coefficient estimation. However, the coupling coefficient varies with the position of the vehicle. Therefore, this paper also presents an easy-to-do practical estimation method from the transmitting side, in which the coupling coefficient value is continuously updated according to the vehicle's position. As a result, the output power is controlled according to the required level with an error of less than 5%.

Efficiency-Cost Parametric-Analysis of a Three-Phase Wireless Dynamic Charging System for Electric Vehicles

Wireless dynamic charging (WDC), while the vehicle is in motion, perceived as an enabling technology to mass roll-out of electric vehicles. High output power with minimized pulsation (ripple) is the key-success for such a technology. This article is presenting a parametric-analysis procedure, aiming at providing design tools for coupler coils of three-phase WDC to achieve specific efficiency and cost requirement. A general design procedure is proposed for a high power WDC system supported by extensive analytical analysis and finite-element analysis simulations for wide ranges of transmitter and receiver dimensions, constrained by the stray fields level limitation. Subsequently, other parameters such as the resonant tank are then recalculated to satisfy the system specification. The calculated efficiency is derived according to the loss model of every single component while a cost model is utilized to determine the associated cost, where the tradeoff between efficiency and cost is obtained by parametric-analysis results. The viability of the proposed procedure is experimentally validated using a 3-kW WDC prototype. The practical results show that the efficiency of 88.2% is achievable with an air gap of 15 cm and a normalized cost factor of 0.845.

A Cost-Effective Segmented Dynamic Wireless Charging System With Stable Efficiency and Output Power

This article presents a cost-effective dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) system for efficient and stable output power charging of autonomous moving equipment. The proposed system is realized based on a low-cost segmented configuration and a flexible operating strategy. Specifically, the configuration is a combination of a dynamic <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">T</i> -series/series topology and extended transmitter (Tx) coils. The topology eliminates the cross-coupling impact of adjacent Tx coils and tunes the dynamic circuits at resonance. It makes the switching circuits equivalent to a unified analytical model for simplified control, which reduces the cost of inverter, decoupling, compensation, and position detection in the DWPT. The extended Tx coil with a simplified structure, which is obtained from winding coupling characteristics and a finite-element analysis based algorithm, is proposed to improve the moving misalignment tolerance, thereby reducing the number of Tx segments. An operating principle with three modes behind the proposed strategy is designed to fully utilize the efficient coupling area of individual Tx segment and improve the efficiency in the transition region from one segment to the other one. The operating parameters including the transition and compensation are obtained based on the topology and its operating principles. Position detection and power regulation methods are developed and embedded in the system control to configure/coordinate the segmented coils as the strategy and mitigate power fluctuation in the transition region. The performance and effectiveness of the proposed cost-effective DWPT system are evaluated based on experimental results on a scaled-down prototype.

Transportation systems management considering dynamic wireless charging electric vehicles: Review and prospects

This paper reviews and prospects the research in transportation systems management with the presence of dynamic wireless charging (DWC) electric vehicles (EVs). DWC is based on inductive coupling that allows EVs to get charged wirelessly by driving over the coils installed in the ground. Thus, DWC is also known as ‘charging-while-driving’ or ‘in-motion charging’, which is regarded as one of the most promising charging solutions for EVs. The road that is equipped with wireless chargers underneath its surface is called a wireless charging lane (WCL). The deployment of WCLs will lead to a profound change in the field of transportation systems management. We give a review of recent studies on related topics including WCL allocation and related decisions, energy consumption of EVs considering WCLs, and pricing of EVs for the use of DWC facilities. Based on the analysis of the existing studies, we identify the needs for more flexible WCL design and allocation models, as well as novel ways that incorporate the complexities in energy consumption by EVs and routing behaviour into traffic network analysis. In addition, we emphasise the research opportunities of dynamic traffic modelling and real-time control considering DWC and EVs with state-of-charge (SOC) constraints. A high-level dynamic system model and a general model-based control problem are formulated in this regard. Finally, we foresee a demand for finer traffic management in the WCL environment enabled by emerging technologies such as the internet of vehicles (IoV) and autonomous driving.

Blockchain-Based Privacy-Preserving Networking Strategy for Dynamic Wireless Charging of EVs

Dynamic wireless charging of electric vehicles (EVs) enables the exchange of power between a mobile EV and the electricity grid via a set of charging pads (CPs) deployed along the road. Accordingly, dynamic charging coordination can be introduced for a group of mobile EVs to specify where each EV can charge (i.e., from which CPs). This coordination mechanism maximizes the satisfied charging requests given the limited available energy supply. Upon specifying the optimal set of pads for a given EV, a fast authentication mechanism is required between the EV and the CPs to start the charging process. However, both the coordination and authentication mechanisms require exchanging private information, e.g., EV identities and locations. Hence, there is a need for a strategy that enables privacy-preservation in dynamic charging via supporting: (i) user anonymity and (ii) data unlinkability. In this paper, we propose a decentralized and scalable networking strategy based on a specially designed private blockchain that can support the privacy requirements of dynamic charging coordination, authentication, and billing. The proposed networking strategy relies on group signature and distributed random number generators to support the desirable features. Simulation results demonstrate the efficiency and low complexity of the proposed blockchain-based networking strategy.

A Magnetic Integrated Method Suppressing Power Fluctuation for EV Dynamic Wireless Charging System

This article proposes a magnetic integrated method for the coupler of the electric vehicle dynamic wireless charging system to suppress power fluctuation by transforming the problem into designing a stable equivalent mutual inductance between the receiving coil and transmitting coils on the road. Both primary-side and secondary-side couplers adopt a magnetic integrated design. The primary-side coupler integrates a reverse coil inside the transmitting coil, and the secondary-side coupler integrates a coil in the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">LCC</i> resonance compensation inside the receiving coil. Two advantages are unveiled through theoretical analysis of system characteristics: the original single mutual inductance is replaced by the mutual inductance difference between the two reverse series transmitting coils and the receiving coil to determine the power transmission, which suppresses output power fluctuation; the secondary-side integrated inductor coil replaces the external bulky compensation inductor in the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">LCC</i> resonance compensation network and additionally realizes better zero-voltage switching conditions. The optimized design process considering the additional couplings is given based on circuit analysis. A prototype is implemented to validate the proposed design. Experimental results show that the output power fluctuation is within ±4% during dynamic charging at a power level of 4.5 kW, and the efficiency reaches 91.6%.

Coils and Compensation Circuit Design Reduces Power Pulsation and Optimizes Transfer Efficiency in the Dynamic Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles

This paper presents a method of designing coils and compensation circuits to reduce output power pulsation, optimize transfer efficiency for electric vehicle dynamic wireless charging systems. The transmission lane is modularly designed. Each module has three short-track transmitter coils that are placed closely together along the moving track of the receiver and connected to a single inverter. The designs of the transmitter and receiver coils are analyzed by finite element analysis to reduce the variation of the coupling coefficient. Then the coupling coefficient is analyzed to identify the characteristics of the dynamic wireless charging lane. The double-sided LCC compensation circuit is designed according to the optimum load value to obtain maximum transfer efficiency. The SIC devices are used to improve the efficiency of the 85 kHz resonant inverter. A 1.5 kW dynamic charging system prototype is constructed. Experimental results show that the average system efficiency of 89.5% is obtained, and the output power pulse rate is ±9.5% in the dynamic charging process.

Dynamic Wireless Charging for Inductive Power Transfer Systems in Electric Vehicles

The charging plate creates magnetic fluxing. The charging plate and the adjacent coil can induce current without any contact. By the new trends, wireless charging got more social attention to the outside world as an alternative method for primitive wired charging. Even though wireless charging was implemented to various electronics industries, it is still proven that wired charging is faster than the wireless. But can make the gadget hot, which may not be good for the battery efficiency. The wireless charging does not degrade the battery. A vehicle that is powered by an electric motor rather than a typical petrol or diesel engine is referred to as an electric vehicle. The electric motor is powered by rechargeable batteries. In this article, the dynamic wireless charging of electric vehicles introduces a new methodology of charging even when the vehicle is in motion. The dynamic wireless charging is proposed to allow power transfer to the electric vehicles when they are in motion. Multiple inductive pads should be buried under the roadways. The inductive pads should be energized by a power supply. The track which is dedicated for the wireless charging should have enough distance so that the vehicles can charge up to a stable value until they leave the charging track. This proposed methodology reduces unnecessary time wastage for charging of vehicles. Hardware results obtained the primary pads mounted on road and power supply for primary roads. Besides, it will flow the efficient inductive power transfer and time saving opportunity.

Electric Vehicle Dynamic Wireless Charging System: Optimal Placement and Vehicle-to-Grid Scheduling

Electric vehicle (EV) dynamic wireless charging system has become an emerging application in the area of the intelligent transportation system (ITS). However, an integrated design of the EV dynamic wireless charging system requires the considerations of both the economical and technical perspectives of a smart city. Specifically, most of the existing researches unilaterally consider the application of either placement strategy for power tracks (PTs) or dynamic vehicle-to-grid (V2G) scheduling. In this article, we propose a multistage system framework to account for an integrated EV dynamic wireless charging system in a smart city. First of all, an optimal placement strategy for PTs is developed based on city traffic information and EV energy demand. Then, having the optimal locations of PTs through the previous stage approach, the proposed dynamic V2G scheduling scheme is formulated to coordinate the schedules of EVs with the provision of daytime V2G ancillary services. Our simulation results present that the proposed multistage system model achieves improvements on both the placement strategy and V2G scheduling scheme. In addition, relatively low economic system costs can be obtained through our proposed model.

Bi-level framework for microgrid capacity planning under dynamic wireless charging of electric vehicles

The battery energy storage system in the microgrid can regulate energy and maintain the stability and continuity of renewable energy generation. This paper presents a new microgrid structure with in-motion electric vehicles as a distributed energy storage system. This structure combines the technology of dynamic wireless charging, allowing in-motion electric vehicles to participate in the energy regulation of the microgrid. The proposed microgrid mainly consists of wind turbines, photovoltaic arrays, as well as dynamic wireless charging facility. Two different planning objectives, i.e., maximizing the microgrid utility and minimizing the total generalized social cost, are investigated respectively. Taking into account the response of EV users to the microgrid capacity plans, we propose a bi-level framework. Further, an algorithm based on the surrogate model is used to solve the bi-level programming, where the radial basis function interpolation model is utilized to approximate the objective function. Finally, in case studies, the influence of parameter variations on the results is explored. The feasibility and advantages of the proposed microgrid capacity planning are demonstrated. Further, through the studies of the uncertainties of wind speed, light intensity, base load, and movable load, it is illustrated that the objective value can maintain good stability under the optimal capacity plan.

An Optimized Coil Array and Passivity-Based Control for Receiving Side Multilevel Connected DC-DC Converter of Dynamic Wireless Charging

Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) is one of the most promising and economical power supply solutions for electric vehicles (EVs), which can address range anxiety and downsize the volume of onboard batteries. To solve the null power phenomenon and transfer power pulsation phenomenon in DWC scheme, this paper proposes a new magnetic coupler array to implement continuous charging and reduce the output power variation. The transmitters are placed with a proper interval to eliminate the adjacent coupling and enlarge the coil array&#x2019;s effective length. ANSYS Maxwell is utilized to demonstrate the finite element analysis (FEA) of the DWC system. A larger receiver coil is designed to significantly mitigate power pulsation and increase the magnetic coupling as the receiver moves along the array. With the well-designed receiver coil, the output power pulsation is <inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\pm$</tex-math></inline-formula> 1.52<inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\%$</tex-math></inline-formula>. For the high-power capacity scenario, a multilevel connected DC-DC converter is designed on the receiver side to regulate the transfer power. Besides, a passivity-based control (PBC) is developed for the receiving DC-DC converter based on the Euler-Lagrange (EL) model, and a current sharing compensator is employed to balance each phase inductor current. Finally, a 500-<inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\text{W}$</tex-math></inline-formula> prototype is constructed, and experimental results are represented to validate the proposed optimized coil array and the proposed PBC method.

Mechanism Analysis of Output Fluctuation in a Three-Phase Dynamic Wireless Charging System

In a dynamic wireless charging (DWC) system, the mutual inductance between the transmitter and receiver coils may vary with the position of the receiver, resulting in a fluctuation of the output voltage. Although a three-phase DWC system can reduce output fluctuation by traveling wave magnetic field, the existing three-phase systems still cannot achieve a uniform output voltage. In order to further improve the output stability, this article analyzes the cause of output voltage fluctuation. The magnetic field generated by the three-phase transmitter coils is decomposed into the fundamental and the harmonic traveling wave magnetic fields for analysis in this article. And a new calculation method of induced voltage is proposed from the perspective of dynamic electromotive force. Then, the voltages induced by the fundamental and the harmonic magnetic fields in the receiver coil are compared, revealing that the fifth and above harmonic magnetic fields are the ultimate cause of the output fluctuation. Subsequently, two fundamental methods to reduce the output fluctuation are proposed, and the effect of the output fluctuation on the efficiency is analyzed. Finally, a prototype was built to verify the correctness of the theoretical analysis and the feasibility of the proposed output fluctuation reduction methods.

Design and Optimization of Asymmetric and Reverse Series Coil Structure for Obtaining Quasi-Constant Mutual Inductance in Dynamic Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles

Lateral misalignment along the driving direction may achieve half the length of a transmission coil in a dynamic wireless charging system for electric vehicles, which is called limit misalignment. This limit misalignment may cause the dynamic wireless charging system to malfunction because of the large fluctuation in mutual inductance. In this paper, an asymmetric and reverse series coil (ARSC) structure is proposed. In the ARSC structure, the transmission coil is smaller than the receiving coil in size to smoothen the fluctuation in mutual inductance. The receiving coil consists of a large coil (<inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\boldsymbol{R}_{\mathrm {x1}}$</tex-math></inline-formula>) and a small coil (<inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\boldsymbol{R}_{\mathrm {x2}}$</tex-math></inline-formula>) and <inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\boldsymbol{R}_{\mathrm {x1}}$</tex-math></inline-formula> is reversely connected to <inline-formula><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\boldsymbol{R}_{\mathrm {x2}}$</tex-math></inline-formula> in series. The purpose of this design is to further reduce the fluctuation in mutual inductance. A calculation method of mutual inductance is then proposed based on the vector potential to calculate the mutual inductance of the ARSC structure. The law of mutual inductance is analyzed by the proposed calculation method for the ARSC structure. Moreover, an optimization method of coil parameters is proposed to obtain quasi-constant mutual inductance. The ARSC structure and optimization method are not only simple but can also make the mutual inductance nearly constant. Calculation, simulation, and experimental results validating the proposed method and structure are shown.

Cost-Efficiency Optimization of Ground Assemblies for Dynamic Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles

Dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) allows electric vehicles (EVs) to be charged while in motion. However, high cost and efficiency concerns limit the widespread adoption of DWPT. A ground assembly (GA) accounts for most of the system cost since it is implemented on a significant portion of the road. This article proposes a cost-efficiency optimization algorithm to determine the optimum design of a DWPT transmitter (Tx) pad. Elongated rectangular pads are considered a compromise between cost and efficiency. An optimization methodology is put forward to maximize Tx pad efficiency while minimizing GA cost over a selected road. The optimum design allows constant power transfer inside a selected rated power zone while considering EV lateral misalignment as a random variable. Main cost factors are accounted for, including the cost of the pad coil Litz wire and ferrite material and Tx power electronics and compensation network. Particle swarm optimization allowed the number of finite element analysis simulations to be reduced by intelligently selecting test designs. Statistical analysis is applied to understand the impact of different variables on the final design and the interdependence between variables. Additional analyses are conducted to evaluate the impact of different DWPT aspects, including the wire gauge, probability density of the misalignment variable, multilayer coil design, and capacitor cost modeling. The algorithm is used to design a 3.7-kVA Tx pad with respect to the SAE J2954 receiver test stand VA WPT1/Z1. The optimization Pareto fronts illustrate the family of optimum designs, while the chosen 3.7-kVA pad offers the statistical expected value of pad efficiency as 96%, GA per meter cost of <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\$ $ </tex-math></inline-formula> 1004, and an optimum pad length of 1.75 m. The 3.7-kVA optimized pad is manufactured and tested for several operating conditions verifying the simulation results.

Energy Management in the Microgrid and Its Optimal Planning for Supplying Wireless Charging Electric Vehicle

The ongoing research work on electric vehicles (EVs) as well as the growing concern around the world to ensure a pollution-free environment is sure to lead to a significant increase in the number of EVs in the near future. The electrification of automobiles is an inevitable trend of future development. However, the growth of EVs relies on several elements: autonomy, the charging practice and infrastructure, the price, and the high amount of energy needed for supplying EV. This tendency impacts several points in transportation such as the road infrastructure and electrical power network. The aim of this article is the integration of new energy power sources as a part of the microgrid (MG) to supply EV with dynamic wireless charging. The main goal is to establish an energy management strategy reducing the running cost. The purpose is suggested for two kinds of operation mode: relying only on the MG (island mode) or relying on the MG and the large grid (grid-connected). The optimization problem is solved on the basis of the particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. We could note that the stability of the microgrid in the off-grid mode is better, when the load is close to the output power of the distributed power supply. Through the coordination and cooperation of the battery output and the other two distributed power generation units, the microgrid can achieve its autonomy and maximize the economy of the system operation. Thanks to our methodology, a better revenue and an enhanced flexible dispatching of the system were met in the grid-connected mode as well.

Determining the Social, Economic, Political and Technical Factors Significant to the Success of Dynamic Wireless Charging Systems through a Process of Stakeholder Engagement

Globally and regionally, there is an increasing impetus to electrify the road transport system. The diversity and complexity of the road transport system pose several challenges to electrification in sectors that have higher energy usage requirements. Electric road systems (ERS) have the potential for a balancing solution. An ERS is not only an engineering project, but it is also an innovation system that is complex and composed of multiple stakeholders, requiring an interdisciplinary means of aligning problems, relations, and solutions. This study looked to determine the political, economic, social, and technical (PEST) factors by actively engaging UK stakeholders through online in-depth and semi-structured discussions. The focus is on dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) due to its wider market reach and on the basis that a comprehensive review of the literature indicated that the current focus is on the technical challenges and hence there is a gap in the knowledge around application requirements, which is necessary if society is to achieve its goals of electrification and GHG reduction. Qualitative analysis was undertaken to identify factors that are critical to the success of a DWPT system. The outcome of this study is knowledge of the factors that determine the function and market acceptance of DWPT. These factors can be grouped into six categories: vehicle, journey, infrastructure, economic, traffic and behaviour. These factors, the associated probability distributions attributable to these factors and the relations between them (logic functions), will form the basis for decision making when implementing DWPT as part of the wider UK electric vehicle charging infrastructure and hence support the ambition to electrify all road transport. The results will make a significant contribution to the emerging knowledge base on ERS and specifically DWPT.

Optimal Siting and Sizing of Wireless EV Charging Infrastructures Considering Traffic Network and Power Distribution System

The main challenges in the widespread deployment of electric vehicles (EVs) are limited driving range, long charging downtime, lack of charging stations in some areas, and high battery cost. Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) technology can overcome some of these obstacles by recharging EV batteries remotely while vehicles move over the charging infrastructures. However, most studies have limited this technology to public EVs working in specific routes like electric buses and taxis routes. This paper presents a long-term stochastic scenario-based mathematical model for allocating and sizing DWC infrastructures considering Ev’s location-routing, power distribution system (PDS) losses, and transportation network traffic. The proposed long-term model allows all types of EVs to take advantage of the installed DWC infrastructures and facilitate EVs’ widespread use by overcoming conventional charging technologies problems. The optimization problem is structured in the form of a Mixed Integer Non-Linear Programming (MINLP) model. Simulation results with detailed analyzes are furnished to illustrate the characteristics and performance of the model in a coupled network combining transportation and power networks. The numerical analysis provides meaningful insight into the transportation system design based on DWC technology and the effect of EV routing on the charging infrastructure allocation. Simulation results show that using Location-Routing Problem (LRP) can save up to 45% of the total cost of the DWC system. In addition, the proposed model, along with the simulations performed, demonstrates the advantage of DWC technology in reducing the size of vehicle batteries.

MobiCharger: Optimal Scheduling for Cooperative EV-to-EV Dynamic Wireless Charging

With the advancement of dynamic wireless charging for Electric Vehicles (EVs), Mobile Energy Disseminator (MED), which can charge an EV in motion, becomes available. However, existing wireless charging scheduling methods for wireless sensors, which are the most related works to MED deployment, are not directly applicable for city-scale EV-to-EV dynamic wireless charging. We present <i>MobiCharger:</i> a <u><i>Mobi</i></u>le wireless <u><i>Charger</i></u> guidance system that determines the number of serving MEDs, and their optimal routes. We studied a metropolitan-scale vehicle mobility dataset, and found: most vehicles have routines, and the number of driving EVs changes over time, which means MED deployment should adaptively change as well. We combine EVs&#x0027; current trajectories and routines to estimate EV density and the cruising graph for MED coverage. Then, we develop an offline MED deployment method that utilizes multi-objective optimization to determine the number of serving MEDs and the driving route of each MED, and an online method that utilizes Reinforcement Learning to adjust the MED deployment when the real-time vehicle traffic changes. Our trace-driven experiments show that compared with previous methods, <i>MobiCharger</i> increases the medium State-of-Charge of all EVs by 50&#x0025; during all time slots, and the number of charges of EVs by almost 100&#x0025;.