Dynamic Range Of System Research Articles

Ultra-Wideband Systems with Energy Harvesting Units for Sensors, 5G, IoT and Medical Systems

The high tech industrial revolution in the last fifty years depleted and ruined the planet natural resources. Energy harvesting is the main challenge in the research in green technologies. Compact wideband efficient antennas are crucial for energy harvesting portable sensors and systems. Small antennas have low efficiency. The efficiency of 5G, IoT communication and energy harvesting systems may be improved by using wideband efficient passive and active antennas. The system dynamic range may be improved by connecting amplifiers to the small antenna feed line. Ultra-wideband portable harvesting systems are presented in this paper. This paper presents new Ultra-Wideband energy harvesting system and antennas in frequencies ranging from 0.15 GHz to 18 GHz. Three wideband antennas cover the frequency range from 0.15 GHz to 18 GHz. A wideband metamaterial antenna with metallic strips covers the frequency range from 0.15 GHz to 0.42 GHz. The antenna bandwidth is around 75% for VSWR better than 2.3:1. A wideband slot antenna covers the frequency range from 0.4 GHz to 6.4 GHz. A wideband fractal notch antenna covers the frequency range from 6 GHz to 18 GHz. Printed passive and active notch and slot antennas are compact, low cost and have low volume. The active antennas may be employed in energy harvesting portable systems. The antennas and the harvesting system components may be assembled on the same, printed board. The printed notch and slot antennas bandwidth are from 75% to 100% for VSWR better than 3:1. The slot and notch antenna gain is around 3 dBi with efficiency higher than 90%. The antennas electrical parameters were computed in free space and near the human body. There is a good agreement between computed and measured results.

Testing and evaluation method for HDR thermal imaging system dynamic range performance

Testing and evaluation method for HDR thermal imaging system dynamic range performance

Channel Measurements and Modeling for 400–600-MHz Bands in Urban and Suburban Scenarios

Sub-1 GHz bands have been used for many years and now some of them will be reallocated for new applications, including the fifth generation (5G) wireless communication systems and beyond, Internet of Things (IoT), smart grid, etc. As the well-known path-loss (PL) models are mainly applicable in 2-6-GHz frequency range, a new channel measurement campaign is needed to study the propagation characteristics at sub-1 GHz bands. In this article, we conduct fixed-to-mobile wideband channel measurements at 400-600-MHz bands in urban and suburban scenarios using the time domain channel sounder. As the interference and noise signals are severe, the transmitted waveform is carefully designed to enlarge the system dynamic range. Meanwhile, ray tracing simulation is applied to construct the measurement environments and do the mutual verification with measurement results. The two-slope PL model and lognormal shadowing fading model are proposed for large-scale fading channel modeling. The root mean square (RMS) delay spread (DS), number of paths, and diffraction characteristics are also analyzed. The results will have great importance for the coming new applications at sub-1 GHz bands.

New Compact Wearable Metamaterials Circular Patch Antennas for IoT, Medical and 5G Applications

The development of compact passive and active wearable circular patch metamaterials antennas for communication, Internet of Things (IoT) and biomedical systems is presented in this paper. Development of compact efficient low-cost wearable antennas are one of the most significant challenges in development of wearable communication, IoT and medical systems. Moreover, the advantage of an integrated compact low-cost feed network is attained by integrating the antenna feed network with the antennas on the same printed board. The efficiency of communication systems may be increased by using efficient passive and active antennas. The system dynamic range may be improved by connecting amplifiers to the printed antenna feed line. Design, design considerations, computed and measured results of wearable circular patch meta-materials antennas with high efficiency for 5G, IoT and biomedical applications are presented in this paper. The circular patch antennas electrical parameters on the human body were analyzed by using commercial full-wave software. The circular patch metamaterial wearable antennas are compact and flexible. The directivity and gain of the antennas with Circular Split-Ring Resonators (CSRR) is higher by 2.5dB to 3dB than the antennas without CSRR. The resonant frequency of the antennas without CSRR is higher by 6% to 9% than the antennas with CSRR. The computed and measured bandwidth of the stacked circular patch wearable antenna with CSRR for IoT and medical applications is around 12%, for S11 lover than −6dB. The gain of the circular patch wearable antenna with CSRR is around 8dBi.

Long baseline LTS SQUID gradiometers with sub-μm sized Josephson junctions

In this paper, we present new integrated on-chip planar-type superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) first order gradiometers, which are manufactured by a new mix and match fabrication technology combining sub-μm sized Josephson junctions (JJs) with cm-scale pickup loops. The fabrication technology is described and the design is schematically shown. These sensors have high voltage swing and low flux noise and provide thus the best so far reported gradient resolution of about These gradiometers were developed and implemented in instruments for applications in mineral exploration. They allow a better system dynamic range (ratio of maximal to minimal detectable signals) and a more effective use of the chip area. The gradiometer performance in terms of gradient resolution is compared against state of the art planar-type SQUID based gradiometers. Two models predicting a gradient noise limit as a function of the chip area and baseline of the gradiometer are discussed. The small geometric dimensions of the gradiometers are very important for future miniaturized instruments in mineral exploration. The comparison of our results with those models highlights the importance of a smaller JJs size for the reduction of the intrinsic gradiometer noise and geometrical dimensions.

A high-quality digital radio-frequency capacitor microphone with improved dynamic range.

Capacitor microphones are widely used to transduce sound waves into electrical voltages. The converting capacitor can either be operated in baseband (audio-frequency) or passband (radio-frequency, RF). A baseband operation can use a straightforward circuit implementation while a passband operation becomes more complex. The advantage of operating the capacitor in passband is a drastically lowered sensor impedance leading to superior performance, especially at high humidity levels. In this work, a digitized RF microphone is presented. Measurements prove the microphone to exceed commercial state-of-the-art small-diaphragm capacitor microphones in signal-to-noise ratio. Additionally, as the signal is digitized before demodulation, the electrical low-frequency 1/f-noise is circumvented. Furthermore, an all-digital gain ranging approach is presented, which is especially suited for the proposed system. The approach increases the system's dynamic range by digitally adjusting and correcting the microphone's sensitivity.

Versatile Dual-Receiver 94-GHz FMCW Radar System With High Output Power and 26-GHz Tuning Range for High Distance Applications

Airborne applications demand exceptional overall radar system performance and eminently high output power for high range target detection. The frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar system presented in this article is capable of achieving this task due to its high output power at 94-GHz center frequency with over 26-GHz tuning range. Nevertheless, the radar still provides a small form factor and low power consumption of 4.25 W at 5 V single Universal Serial Bus (USB) supply. The key system component is a Silicon Germanium (SiGe) bipolar complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (BiCMOS) monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) that contains a 94-GHz voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), and a 27-GHz VCO for dual-loop phase-locked loop (PLL) stabilization, a power amplifier (PA), and two receive mixers. It generates frequency ramps between 83- and 109-GHz with a maximum output power of 19.7 dBm at its output after the bond wires on the printed circuit board (PCB) and 14.8-dBm output power at the radar’s transmit (TX)-waveguide WR-10-flange. The sensor was also tested in a temperature range from −40 °C to +70 °C with menial deviation. Thus, the system offers high system dynamic range and far distance target detection range. Following a detailed system description, we finally present the FMCW range and Doppler measurements performed with the presented radar sensor as well as the application on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for flight altitude control and as airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS).

Influence of delay stage positioning error on signal-to-noise ratio, dynamic range, and bandwidth of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy

Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) employs a mechanical stage to introduce the time delay between pump and probe optical pulses during the sampling process of the time-domain electric field of a terahertz pulse. The positioning error and limited resolution of a mechanical delay stage cause an inaccurate sampling of a terahertz pulse. In this study, we numerically and experimentally investigated the influence of delay stage positioning error on the major characteristics of THz-TDS, such as bandwidth and dynamic range of the system, along with the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the intensity spectra. We demonstrate that the positioning error in the delay stage not only reduces bandwidth and dynamic range of the measurement system but also decreases the SNR of the intensity spectra.

Compact Wearable Meta Materials Antennas for Energy Harvesting Systems, Medical and IOT Systems

Demand for green technologies and green energy is in continuous growth in the last decade. Compact efficient radiators are very important for energy harvesting portable systems. Small antennas have low efficiency. The efficiency of communication and energy harvesting systems may increase by using efficient passive and active antennas. The system dynamic range may be improved by connecting amplifiers to the printed antenna feed line. Design, design considerations, computed and measured results of wearable meta-materials antennas with high efficiency for energy harvesting applications are presented in this paper. The antennas electrical parameters on human body were analyzed by using commercial full-wave software. The wearable antennas are compact and flexible and are 1.6 mm thick. The directivity and gain of the antennas with Split-ring resonators (SRR), is higher by 2 dB to 3 dB than the antennas without SRR. The resonant frequency of the antennas without SRR is higher by 5% to 10% than the antennas with SRR.

Hair Bundle Stimulation Mode Modifies Manifestations of Mechanotransduction Adaptation.

Sound detection in auditory sensory hair cells depends on the deflection of the stereocilia hair bundle which opens mechano-electric transduction (MET) channels. Adaptation is hypothesized to be a critical property of MET that contributes to the auditory system's wide dynamic range and sharp frequency selectivity. Our recent work using a stiff probe to displace hair bundles showed that the fastest adaptation mechanism (fast adaptation) does not require calcium entry. Using fluid-jet stimuli, others obtained data showing only a calcium-dependent fast adaptation response. Because cochlear stereocilia do not move coherently and the hair cell response depends critically on the magnitude and time course of the hair bundle deflection, we developed a high-speed imaging technique to quantify this deflection in rat cochlear hair cells. The fluid jet delivers a force stimulus, and force steps lead to a complex time course of hair bundle displacement (mechanical creep), which affects the hair cell's macroscopic MET current response by masking the time course of the fast adaptation response. Modifying the fluid-jet stimulus to generate a hair bundle displacement step produced rapidly adapting currents that did not depend on membrane potential, confirming that fast adaptation does not depend on calcium entry. MET current responses differ with stimulus modality and will shape receptor potentials of different hair cell types based on their in vivo stimulus mode. These transformations will directly affect how stimuli are encoded.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Mechanotransduction by sensory hair cells represents a key first step for the sound sensing ability in vertebrates. The sharp frequency tuning and wide dynamic range of sound sensation are hypothesized to require a mechanotransduction adaptation mechanism. Recent work indicated that the apparent calcium dependence of the fastest adaptation differs with the method of cochlear hair cell stimulation. Here, we reconcile existing data and show that calcium entry does not drive the fastest adaptation process, independent of the stimulation method. With force stimulation of the hair bundle, adaptation manifests differently than with displacement stimulation, indicating that the stimulation mode of the hair bundle will affect the hair cell receptor current and stimulus coding.

Synchro-Excited Free-Running Single Photon Counting: A Novel Method for Measuring Short-Wave Infrared Emission Kinetics.

Time-resolved measurements of short-wave infrared (SWIR) photoluminescence on the submicrosecond to millisecond scale are needed for physical and chemical studies involving singlet oxygen, single-walled carbon nanotubes, and other samples with weak, slow emission. We present here an alternative to the common method of time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) that is well suited to indium gallium arsenide avalanche photodiode (APD) detectors operated in Geiger mode. In the new method, termed synchro-excited free-running single photon counting (SEFR-SPC), excitation pulses from inexpensive laser diodes (providing a variety of wavelengths) are synchronized to detection events from a free-running detector covering the 900 to 1700 nm range. In contrast to traditional TCSPC, data from this method can be rigorously corrected for pile-up distortions, allowing operation with high excitation powers and low repetition rates. A technique is described to extend the system's dynamic range to approximately 108. We also show that SEFR-SPC provides state-of-the-art sensitivity in the SWIR spectral region and that spectrally filtered kinetic data can offer additional insights. A six-step correction protocol has been developed and implemented as a LabVIEW program for very accurate acquisition of kinetic shapes. The SEFR-SPC method will be a valuable tool for studies of weak, long-lived emission sources.

910-P: Improved Accuracy of 14-Day Factory-Calibrated FreeStyle Libre System with New Glucose Algorithm

We evaluated the accuracy of FreeStyle Libre 14-day system with new glucose algorithm in adults ages 18 years or older. This was a non-randomized, multi-center, single-arm study that enrolled 144 subjects with types 1 and 2 diabetes on intensive insulin therapy at 5 U.S. sites. Subjects participated in 3 clinic sessions of up to 10 hours each over the 14- day wear period to obtain comparator data. Glucose concentrations were manipulated to obtain glucose concentrations across the system dynamic range of 40-500mg/dL. System performance was evaluated in terms of percent accuracy with respect to venous plasma reference using YSI2300. Accuracy was characterized as the proportion of sensor results that were within ±15%, ± 20% of their paired YSI values for glucose levels ≥ 70 mg/dL or within ± 15 mg/dL, ± 20 mg/dL of YSI for glucose levels < 70 mg/dL. Other accuracy metrics such as mean bias and mean absolute relative difference (MARD) of the FreeStyle Libre System with respect to YSI were also evaluated and are presented in Table 1. FreeStyle Libre System with new algorithm showed 92.8% of the results within ±20mg/dL/±20% of the venous plasma reference with an overall MARD of 9.2% based on the data from 144 subjects with evaluable sensors. Disclosure S.A. Karinka: Employee; Self; Abbott. T.S. Bailey: Advisory Panel; Self; Abbott. Consultant; Self; Capillary Biomedical, Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Medtronic, Novo Nordisk Inc., Sanofi. Research Support; Self; Abbott, Ascensia Diabetes Care, Becton, Dickinson and Company, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Calibra Medical, Capillary Biomedical, Inc., Companion Medical, Dance Biopharm Holdings Inc., Dexcom, Inc., Diasome Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, GlySens Incorporated, Kowa Pharmaceutical Europe Co. Ltd., Lexicon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Medtronic, Novo Nordisk Inc., POPS! Diabetes Care, POPS! Diabetes Care, Sanofi, Senseonics, vTv Therapeutics, Xeris Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Zealand Pharma A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Abbott, MannKind Corporation, Medtronic, Novo Nordisk Inc., Sanofi US, Senseonics. R.L. Brazg: Research Support; Self; Abbott, Ascensia Diabetes Care, Eli Lilly and Company, Gan & Lee Pharmaceuticals, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Medtronic, Novo Nordisk Inc., ProSciento, Roche Diagnostic USA, Xeris Pharmaceuticals, Inc. E.S. Budiman: Employee; Self; Abbott. Stock/Shareholder; Self; Abbott, AbbVie Inc. K. Castorino: Consultant; Self; Abbott. Research Support; Self; Abbott, Dexcom, Inc., Drawbridge, Novo Nordisk Inc., Sanofi US. M.P. Christiansen: Research Support; Self; Abbott, Biolinq, Dexcom, Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Medtronic MiniMed, Inc., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi-Aventis, Xeris Pharmaceuticals, Inc. D.R. Liljenquist: None. H. Liu: Employee; Self; Abbott Laboratories. Funding Abbott Diabetes Care

Design and Performance of a GPS Constellation Power Monitor System for Improved CYGNSS L1B Calibration

The Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS) uses a bistatic radar configuration with the Global Positioning System (GPS) constellation as the active sources and the CYGNSS satellites as the passive receivers. The GPS effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP), defined as the product of transmit power and antenna gain pattern, is of great importance to the accurate Level 1B calibration of the CYGNSS mission. To address the uncertainties in EIRP, a ground-based GPS constellation power monitor (GCPM) system has been built to accurately and precisely measure the direct GPS signals. A PID thermal controller successfully stabilizes the system temperature over the long term. Radiometric calibration is performed to determine the system dynamic range and to calibrate GCPM gain. Single PRN calibration using a GPS signal simulator is used to compute the scale factor to convert the received counts into power in watts. The GCPM received power is highly repeatable and has been verified with DLR/GSOC's independent measurements. The transmit power (L1 C/A) of the full GPS constellation is estimated using an optimal search algorithm. Updated values for transmit power have been successfully applied to CYGNSS L1B calibration and found to significantly reduce the PRN dependence of CYGNSS L1 and L2 data products.

Active Compact Wearable Body Area Networks for Wireless Communication, Medical and IoT Applications

The development of compact wearable antennas and transceivers for communication, IoT (Internet of Things), and biomedical systems will be presented in this paper. Development of Compact efficient wearable antennas is one of the major challenges in development of wearable communication, IoT, and medical systems. The main goal of wireless body area networks (BANs), WBANs, is to provide continuously medical data to the physician. Body area network (BAN) antennas should be flexible, lightweight, compact, and have low production cost. However, low efficiency is the major disadvantage of small printed antennas. Microstrip antennas resonant frequency is altered, due to environment conditions, different antenna locations, and different system operation modes. These disadvantages may be solved by using compact active and tunable antennas. A new class of wideband active wearable antennas for medical applications is presented in this paper. Amplifiers may be connected to the wearable antenna feed line to increase the system dynamic range. Small lightweight batteries supply the bias voltage to the active components. An active dual polarized antenna is presented in this paper. The active dual polarized antenna gain is 14 ± 3 dB for frequencies ranging from 380 to 600 MHz. The active transmitting dual polarized antenna output power is around 18 dBm. A voltage-controlled diode, varactor, may be used to control the antenna electrical performance at different environments. For example, an antenna located in patient stomach area has VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) better than 2:1 at 434 MHz. However, if the antenna will be placed on the patient back, it may resonate at 420 MHz. By varying the varactor bias voltage, the antenna resonant frequency may be shifted from 420 to 434 MHz. An ultra-wideband passive and active printed slot antenna may be employed in wideband wearable communication systems. The active slot antenna gain is 13 ± 2 dB for frequencies from 800 MHz to 3 GHz.

Performance Analysis of FPGA Based MAC Unit using DBTNS Multiplier & TRNS Adder for Signal Processing Algorithm

Digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms are actually nothing but sum of product. So, they are computationally intensive. All the mathematical tasks related to DSP algorithm are based on multiplication and addition. So, the implementations of DSP algorithms-based applications extensively require multiplier and adder. Due to extensive use of multiplication and addition operation, speed up cannot be achieved. Designing the high-performance adder and multiplier are primary objective for implementing high performance signal processing applications. This hindrance can be removed by Multiply-Accumulate Unit (MAC). The special feature of a MAC unit is its ability to perform single cycle multiplication and addition operation.The performance of MAC Unit can be improved by using non-binary number system. Ternary value logic (TVL) has the ability to offer several advantages over conventional binary number system like reduce chip area, reduce overall delay. TVL can switch between three levels, such levels denoted by 0, 1, 2. As Residue Number Systems (RNS) can perform carry arithmetic operations, high performance adder can be implemented using RNS in TVL domain (TRNS). Partial product free multiplication can be implemented by using Double Base Number System in TVL domain (DBTNS). Double Base Ternary Number System (DBTNS) multiplier can perform better than conventional TVL multiplier. A MAC unit is used to perform the multiplication and accumulator operations together to avoid unnecessary overhead on the processor in terms of processing time and the on-chip memory requirements. Keeping in view of these issues, a new architecture is proposed for implementing high performance MAC unit for DSP applications. In this paper, a new approach of designing MAC unit is instigated using DBTNS multiplier and TRNS adder. A major bottleneck of implementing this architecture is the complexity involved in converting TVL to DBTNS in initial stage and converting TRNS to TVL in final stage. The performance of Ternary Residue Number Systems (TRNS) system depends on selection of moduli because selection of moduli is not properly maintained then it will affect system speed, dynamic range and hardware complexity. Proposed MAC unit is mapped on field programmable gate array (FPGA) for analysis its performance.

Steady-Sensitivity Distributed Acoustic Sensors

Distributed acoustic sensors (DAS) based on phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (ϕOTDR) have demonstrated interesting performance for many applications ranging from seismology to pipeline protection. However, the sensitivity of traditional DAS relying on coherent detection is strongly dependent on the system noise and trace fading points, offering poor reliability of the results in the spatial dimension. In this manuscript, we evaluate the statistical performance of a recently proposed DAS technique, namely, chirped-pulse ϕOTDR, in terms of sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Our results show behavioral trends that significantly differ from those of traditional DAS. In particular, the acoustic SNR distribution in chirped-pulse DAS is notably narrower than that in the traditional case, allowing to ensure a large system dynamic range across all the points of the optical trace. Hence, chirped-pulse ϕOTDR offers localized perturbation detection with very high reliability, almost independent of trace fading points, along the complete reachable range of the sensor.

A Mixed-Mode Beamforming Radar Transmitter MMIC Utilizing Novel Ultrawideband IQ-Generation Techniques in SiGe BiCMOS

Wireless systems like radar and communication systems evolved progressively into multichannel systems over the past years. The most common multichannel concepts are multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and phased array architectures. In this paper, we present a transmitter monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) in a SiGe BiCMOS technology for its application, a mixed-mode frequency modulated continuous wave radar that is able to operate in both ways, in an MIMO and a beamforming mode. The MIMO mode is used for medium range and fast 3-D scans and the phased array mode is used for beamforming. This mode increases the effective output power of the transmitted signal beam and thus system dynamic and detection range. For this purpose, we developed ultrawideband quadrature (IQ) generation techniques to generate synchronous IQ-signals in each channel of our system to feed a vector adder, which is capable of shifting the phase for beamforming. The developed IQ-generation circuits are able to operate from 1 to 30 GHz, and the complete radar transmitter MMIC, including a power amplifier (PA), operates from 11 to 20 GHz. The IQ-generation phase error in this frequency range is below 6° and below 9°/3.2°rms for the IQ-generation together with vector modulator. The power consumption is 285 mW and the PA consumes 1.25 W with a maximum output power of the complete multimode TX MMIC of 24.4 dBm at 15 GHz.

Enhanced Dynamic Range Power Independent Doppler Frequency Estimation System

A Doppler shift estimation system with relatively high dynamic range is conceived and demonstrated. The scheme is based on dual mixing the modulated radar echo and frequency to voltage mapping. Hence, it needs no radio frequency auxiliary part. This makes the system capable of becoming integrated into any photonic radar, which would positively affect the cost and size of such system. Since the mixing procedure is all-optical, the system is able to identify the Doppler frequency of a radar echo with carrier frequency as high as 40 GHz independent of its amplitude. The system dynamic range can be as high as 42 dB at 10-GHz radar carrier with an acceptable error of 5%. This dynamic range was achieved using lock-in amplification technique.

Improved cloud-phase determination of low-level liquid and mixed-phase clouds by enhanced polarimetric lidar

Abstract. The unambiguous retrieval of cloud phase from polarimetric lidar observations is dependent on the assumption that only cloud scattering processes affect polarization measurements. A systematic bias of the traditional lidar depolarization ratio can occur due to a lidar system's inability to accurately measure the entire backscattered signal dynamic range, and these biases are not always identifiable in traditional polarimetric lidar systems. This results in a misidentification of liquid water in clouds as ice, which has broad implications on evaluating surface energy budgets. The Clouds Aerosol Polarization and Backscatter Lidar at Summit, Greenland employs multiple planes of linear polarization, and photon counting and analog detection schemes, to self evaluate, correct, and optimize signal combinations to improve cloud classification. Using novel measurements of diattenuation that are sensitive to both horizontally oriented ice crystals and counting system nonlinear effects, unambiguous measurements are possible by over constraining polarization measurements. This overdetermined capability for cloud-phase determination allows for system errors to be identified and quantified in terms of their impact on cloud properties. It is shown that lidar system dynamic range effects can cause errors in cloud-phase fractional occurrence estimates on the order of 30 % causing errors in attribution of cloud radiative effects on the order of 10–30 %. This paper presents a method to identify and remove lidar system effects from atmospheric polarization measurements and uses co-located sensors at Summit to evaluate this method. Enhanced measurements are achieved in this work with non-orthogonal polarization retrievals as well as analog and photon counting detection facilitating a more complete attribution of radiative effects linked to cloud properties.

Noise Performance Comparison Between Continuous Wave and Stroboscopic Pulse Ground Penetrating Radar

Although stroboscopic pulse (SP) ground penetrating radar (GPR) is the most popular and widespread equipment for subsoil investigation, continuous-wave (CW) radar has better performance in terms of noise, system dynamic range, and penetration depth, at the expense of greater complexity and cost of the components. The aim of this letter is a direct comparison between SP GPR and CW GPR through an extensive measurement campaign in five different locations representative of the different conditions where a GPR could operate.