Baking Duration Research Articles

Baking releases microplastics from polyethylene terephthalate bakeware as detected by optical photothermal infrared and quantum cascade laser infrared

The use of plastic bakeware is a potential source of human exposure to microplastics (MPs). However, characterizing MPs remains a challenge. This study aims to employ optical photothermal infrared (O-PTIR) and quantum cascade laser infrared (QCL-IR) technology to characterise polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MPs shed from PET bakeware during the baking process. The bakeware, filled with ultrapure water, underwent baking cycles at 220 °C for 20 min, 60 min, and three consecutive cycles of 60 min each. Subsequently, particles present in the ultrapure water were collected using an Al2O3 filter. O-PTIR and QCL-IR were used to characterise PET MPs collected from the filtration. Analysis revealed that QCL-IR spectra exhibited broader absorption peaks, compared to O-PTIR. Notably, MP spectra obtained from both techniques displayed common absorption peaks around 1119, 1623, 1341 and 1725 cm−1. The dominant size of PET MPs detected by O-PTIR and QCL-IR was 1–3 μm and 5–20 μm, respectively. The quantity of identified PET MPs using O-PTIR was 18 times greater than that with QCL-IR, which was attributed to variations in spatial resolution, sampling methods for spectra collection, and data analysis employed by the two methods. Importantly, findings from both techniques highlighted a notably large quantity of MPs released from PET bakeware, particularly evident after 3 cycles of 60 min of baking, suggesting a substantial increase in the potential ingestion of MPs, especially in scenarios involving extended baking durations. The research outcomes will guide consumers on minimizing the intake of microplastics by using PET bakeware for shorter baking time. Additionally, the study will yield valuable insights into the application of O-PTIR and QCL-IR for MPs detection, potentially inspiring advancements in MPs detection methodologies through cutting-edge technologies.

Multi-criteria optimization of technological parameters of microwave baking of whipped yeast-free bread without crust

In order to reduce energy consumption and baking time of churned yeast-free bakery products, to improve their quality, it is relevant to use effective sources of energy supply to test blanks. For uniform heating of test blanks throughout the entire volume, their ultra-high-frequency heating during baking is of the greatest interest, which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of production. One of the well-known methods of studying the baking process of whipped, yeast-free, unskilled bread was the method of mathematical modeling based on the formalization of a mathematical model. Experiment planning is the most effective in obtaining maximum information about the modeling object with a minimum amount of experimental research. In this paper, the modeling and optimization of the technological parameters of microwave baking of whipped yeast-free bread with the use of experimental statistical methods is considered. The mass of the dough piece and the power of microwave baking were chosen as the main factors. The output parameters were the duration of baking until ready, the package and the height of the bread. Based on the results of the central compositional rotatable planning of the experiment, mathematical models in the form of regression equations are constructed that adequately describe the processes under study. Statistical processing of experimental data was performed according to the criteria of Student, Kohren and Fisher (with a confidence probability of 0.95). The mathematical interpretation of regression equations is given. Optimization of the parameters of microwave baking of churned yeast-free bakery products was carried out by the method of indeterminate Lagrange multipliers. The optimal values of the main factors of the experiment were determined: the mass of the test piece – 465 g; the power of microwave baking - 865 W, which ensures the smallest bread roll – 1.2% and the maximum bread height - 78.5 mm with a minimum duration of baking bread – 3.4 min.

Insight to the Duration of 120 $^{\circ }$C Baking on the Performance of SRF Niobium Cavities

Low-temperature baking at 100 <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{\circ}$</tex-math></inline-formula> C–140 <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{\circ}$</tex-math></inline-formula> C in ultrahigh vacuum for several hours is the final cavity processing technique to achieve the highest accelerating gradient cavity by eliminating the high field Q-slope, typically on cavities made of high purity fine grain niobium and subjected to electropolishing. The temperature and duration of baking control the onset of the high field Q-slope and overall quality factor over the baseline measurements. The increase in quality factor is generally related to the reduction in the temperature-dependent surface resistance, which refers to BCS surface resistance due to the reduction in the electronic mean free path and elimination of high field Q-slope is still being actively investigated. Here, we present the results of a series of measurements on 1.3 GHz TESLA shape single-cell cavities with successive low-temperature baking at 120 <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{\circ}$</tex-math></inline-formula> C up to 96 h. The rf loss related to the trapping of residual magnetic field refers to flux trapping sensitivity measured with respect to the duration of 120 <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><tex-math notation="LaTeX">$^{\circ}$</tex-math></inline-formula> C bake.

Evaluation of the cookies formulated with finger millet plant material for antidiabetic property

Cookies are the most popular bakery food consumed worldwide. The development of reduced-sugar soft cookies by using Finger Millet, Syzygium cumini L. (Jamun) and stevia extract was investigated. In addition to it, Buttermilk powder was used as a bulking agent to improve the flavor, color and texture of the cookies along with other ingredients like flour, margarine, salt, sodium bicarbonate, and water. The creamery method of production was used for cookie preparation. Amounts of water, stevia, and buttermilk powder and baking duration for each formulation were determined by preliminary experiments. Different formulations use different ratios to find out the best composition for cookies on the basis of palatability. After the selection of the best composition, cookies were prepared for the physiochemical, sensory and nutritional analysis. Sensory analysis was evaluated based on organoleptic properties: color, taste, aroma and overall acceptability on the basis of a 9-point hedonic scale. The physiochemical evaluation included total ash value, total water, and alcoholic extraction, and total moisture content. On the basis of nutritional value comparison, it was found that protein content is higher in our formulation than in other marketed products. Due to the high antioxidant potential and phenolic content of the Finger Millet cookie, it can be used as a therapeutic or functional food source for the treatment of overweight, obesity, and diabetes.

Analytical approach to metal oxide resist modeling: exposure, bake, and network formation

Metal oxide photoresists (MORs) have received attention for use in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithographic patterning, in which more established chemically amplified resists suffer from long blur lengths and low EUV absorptivity. To meet the demand for next-generation semiconductor devices, a thorough understanding of the physics behind MOR patterning is required to predict the outcome of arbitrary patterning schemes and to determine optimal process conditions. However, the ability to model and predict MORs through bake and development is still in early stages. We provide a modeling framework and associated analytical expressions that describe the behavior of MORs that have so far been described by kinetic Monte Carlo simulation approaches. We further extend the aforementioned analytical expressions to directly predict dose-to-gel transition energies for wet-developed MORs for arbitrary bake temperature and bake duration. Finally, we briefly compare our methodology using an in-house simulation program to patterning results from an experiment using Fractilia MetroLER™.

ВЛИЯНИЕ РЕЖИМОВ ПРОЦЕССА ВЫПЕЧКИ В ПАРОКОНВЕКТОМАТЕ НА КАЧЕСТВО СДОБНЫХ ИЗДЕЛИЙ

Modernization of the technological park of catering equipment and conducting research on modes development and parameters of the technology of bakery products in the combi steamer, which is less used for the production of this group of food products considers in the work issue. Studies on the selection of rational modes and parameters for the production of fancy bread "Severnaya" were carried out on the basis of a comparative assessment of the organoleptic and physico-chemical parameters of control and experimental samples, respectively obtained according to traditional technology - in an cabinet oven and experimental - in a combi steamer. It is shown that fermentation temperature and proofing at a temperature of 37°C of the combi steamer helps to reduce the fermentation time in manual mode compared to automatic mode by 10 minutes; at the same time, the ratio of steam / convection is – 50% / 50%, the blower speed is pulse-mode. The selection of the temperature for baking muffins in a combi oven by comparing the results of prototypes made it possible to establish rational modes: 100% convection is recommended at a temp of 160 °C, blower speed ½, baking time is thirteen minutes. The results showed that the quality of "Severnaya" is largely influenced by the ratio of steam / convection, the fan rotation mode in the combi steamer, the temperature and duration of baking. It is recommended to take into account the individual characteristics of the fancy bread to determine the baking time: the weight and shape of the product.

Effects of baking on the biochemical composition of Chlorella vulgaris

Chlorella vulgaris has gained popularity in recent years as a functional food ingredient with its highly nutritious profile. In this study, we have explored the effects of baking at 125 °C for 15 min to C. vulgaris CCAP 211/11b on the biomass's water soluble carbohydrate and protein contents, total lipids, and soluble vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B7, B9, B12 and C). Control (raw) and experimental (baked) groups' average soluble carbohydrate content varied between 26 and 27%, soluble proteins 21–23%, and total lipids 7–9% of dried cell weight indicating no significant effects of baking process on C. vulgaris. Results of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometer (LC-MS/MS) showed that baking also had no significant effect on vitamins except B3. Vitamins B1, B2, and B3 were higher in baked samples compared to the control group. Overall, C. vulgaris deemed suitable for addition to functional food recipes with short baking durations considering the durability of main biochemical components as well as water soluble vitamins.

Исследование технологии производства крупеника с применением электроконтактного способа выпечки

The results of a study of the technology for the production of krupeniks using the electrocontact method of baking are presented. The quality of krupeniki was evaluated by physicochemical parameters: weight yield, volume yield, specific volume, acidity. Evaluation of krupenik according to organoleptic indicators was carried out by the method of ranking according to indicators: appearance, texture, smell, taste. For a generalized assessment of the organoleptic properties of krupenik, a complex indicator of organoleptic properties was developed, which was calculated as the sum of points for individual indicators of organoleptic properties, multiplied by the corresponding significance coefficients. The influence of the egg dosage in the recipe of krupeniks on the change in the current strength and temperature of the samples in the process of electric contact baking was studied. A significant effect of the dosage of eggs on the nature of the change in temperature and current strength during electric contact baking of krupeniks was not revealed. With an increase in the dosage of eggs, the duration of baking and the maximum value of the current strength during electric contact baking decrease. The influence of the egg dosage on the organoleptic and physico-chemical parameters of the krupeniks has been established. It was revealed that with an increase in the dosage of eggs to 20% of the total mass of raw materials, the volumetric yield and specific volume increase, with a further increase in the dosage of eggs, they decrease. Weight yield and acidity decrease with increasing egg dosage. The optimal dosage of eggs was established, equa to 20% in the recipe of krupeniks baked by the electrocontact method, which makes it possible to obtain finished products with the best combination of organoleptic and physico-chemical properties.

Sweet bread chemical properties optimalization based on baking temperature and duration

Bread is main food in several country. Sweet bread is one popular type that has a lasting sweet taste and soft textured with or without stuffing. Baking is the most important process of bread production. The temperature and time required in the baking varies according to the type of bread, big dough, and baking pan in the oven used. This research aimed to identify the optimum level of baking temperature and duration to the chemical properties of sweet bread. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) Factorial with 2 factors and 3 replications were applied for this research. The first factor was baking temperature consisted 4 level (T1= 180 oC, T2= 190 oC, T3= 200 oC, T4= 210 oC), and the second factor was baking duration which composed 4 level (A1= 10 minutes, A2= 15 minutes, A3= 20 minutes, A4= 25 minutes). The results showed that there wasn’t interaction between baking temperature and duration to water content, fat, protein, and carbohydrate, but it was interaction to the ash content. The baking temperature and duration separatelly had significantly effect to the all parameter. The best result according to the SNI 01-3840-1995 was S4W4 (185 oC: 14 minutes) with water content (23.572%), fat (10.906), protein (1.105%), carbohydrate (62.940 %), and ash content (1.736 %).

Microwave acid baking process for recovery of rare-earth concentrate from phosphor of end-of-life fluorescent lamps

A novel processing route of microwave-assisted acid baking followed by water leaching of waste phosphor retrieved from end-of-life fluorescent lamps is investigated. The waste phosphor consists of a mixture of monochromatic phosphor phases (Y2O3:Eu3+, BaMgAl10O17:Eu2+, CeMgAl11O19:Tb3+, LaPO4:Ce3+Tb3+), and the baking parameters like microwave power, baking duration, and acid dose were optimized using randomized block statistical design of experiments. The thermodynamic considerations of the sulfation process are evaluated by the thermogravimetric analysis of the phosphor-acid mixture. The estimated thermal decomposition activation energies for the predicted sulfation reactions are 652.9, 375.9, and 409.5 kJ/mol at 0.7, 0.85, and 1 mL/g acid dosage, respectively, in the temperature range of 231–308 °C. It was found that the microwave baking at 800 W for 3 min at 1 mL/g acid ratio yielded 82.5% overall rare-earth dissolution, including 93.6% terbium, 39.6% lanthanum, and ~100% europium and yttrium dissolution. Cerium dissolution was negligible in the investigated experimental conditions. The dissociation of the LaPO4:Ce3+Tb3+ phase governs the overall rare earth dissolution during the baking process. The XRD analysis of the products suggests that the lanthanum and cerium values interact with phosphoric acid at the phosphor surface to form polyphosphates (LaPO4, CePO4), deteriorates the dissolution efficiency. The partially reacted Ce (III) values were oxidized to a stable Ce (IV) state, which leads to its accumulation in the leach residue. The mass balance at optimal conditions indicates that 184 g phosphor of 100 tubular lights units yielded 73 g of 98% pure Y-Eu-Tb oxides. The specific energy expenditure for the present lab-scale study was calculated at 8 kWh/kg of phosphor. The cost estimations indicate that the process is economically viable with a total value generation of 14.47 US$/kg with 89% contribution of terbium and cost of processing is 0.69 US$/Kg phosphor.

Development and Evaluation of the Operational Parameters of a Rotary Oven

Developing an efficient rotary oven that is capable of addressing the issue of long baking duration and uneven heating distribution during baking could aid in encouraging indigenous use of the oven by small and medium scale bakeries in developing countries. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the performance of a rotary oven. Taguchi experimental design was used to investigate the influence of oven temperature (160, 180, 200°C) and oven rack speed (0, 10, 20 rpm) on the physical properties (baking time, mass, surface area, specific volume and density) of bread produced from the rotary oven. The baking capacity and efficiency of the rotary oven were 16 kg h-1 and 94%, respectively. Investigation showed that baking time ranges from 20 to 82 min, bread mass (884 to 925.7 g), surface area (1050 to 1370 cm2 ), specific volume (2.36 to 3.70 cm3 g -1 ) and density (0.25 to 0.39 g cm-3 ), respectively. The optimum baking time (20 min) was achieved at 200°C oven temperature and 10 rpm oven rack speed. The oven could be adopted for both domestic and industrial production of bread and other bakery products.&#x0D; Keywords: Bread, oven temperature, oven rack speed, taguchi, rotary oven.

Исследование технологии производства безглютеновых маффинов с применением электроконтактного способа выпечки

The results of a study of the technology for the production of muffins replacing wheat flour with a mixture of buckwheat, rice and chickpea flour with using the electrocontact (EC) baking are presented. The quality of gluten-free muffins was assessed by physical and chemical indicators: weight yield, volumetric yield, specific volume, moisture. Evaluation of muffins by organoleptic indicators was carried out on a five-point scale according to indicators: appearance, texture, smell, taste. For a generalized assessment of the organoleptic properties of muffins, a complex indicator of organoleptic properties was developed, which was calculated as the sum of points for individual indicators of organoleptic properties, multiplied by the corresponding coefficients of significance. The effect of egg dosages in a gluten-free muffin recipe on the change in the current strength and temperature of the samples during EC-baking was studied. A significant effect of the dosage of eggs on the nature of the change in temperature and current strength during EC-baking of muffins was not revealed. With an increase in the dosage of eggs, the duration of baking and the maximum value of the current for EC-baking increase. The influence of the dosage of the apple on the organoleptic, physico-chemical indicators and specific energy costs for the EC-baking process has been established. It was found that with an increase in the dosage of eggs in the recipe from 10 to 20%, the volume yield and the specific volume of muffins increased, with a further increase in the dosage of eggs from 20 to 30%, it decreased. The weight yield and moisture content of muffins increased with increasing egg dosage. The optimal dosage of egg equal to 20% in the formulation of muffin baked by the EC-method has been established, which allows to obtain finished products with the best combination of organoleptic and physico-chemical properties.

Methods for calculating the duration of baking of minced meat products during heat treatment in convection ovens

Saving energy resources, optimizing production processes and ensuring high quality of finished products are important tasks facing the food industry of the Republic of Belarus at the present stage of social and economic development. From this point of view, the current direction of scientific activity is development of methods for predicting duration of heat treatment of food products, which will allow to increase the level of production planning, implement production processes rationally, ensure production of finished products with high consumer parameters with no underheating or overheating of material of the processed bodies, and decrease the cost of energy resources for thermal processes. The paper proposes the method for theoretical calculation of baking duration for minced meat products in direct contact of the heating medium with the processed body in modern convection units. When developing a theoretical calculation, heat transfer processes are divided into internal and external. When describing internal heat transfer processes, changes in the thermal and physical characteristics of the material of the processed body are considered, determined by mass transfer processes and physical and chemical changes in structural elements with conversion of raw minced meat into finished product with baked crust. The processes of external heat exchange are described according to the operating parameters of modern convection ovens used in small and medium-sized enterprises of food industry and public catering. The values of duration of heat treatment on the example of products made of chicken mince at different temperatures of the heating medium are obtained. Special rod cassettes with a rigid thermocouple attachment design have been developed to ensure correct experiment. Deviations of baking duration values between the theoretically calculated and experimentally obtained values range from 1.49 to 4.44 % for different temperatures of heating medium, which indicates the efficiency of the developed technique. The proposed technique for calculating the duration of baking process for minced meat products when heated will allow optimizing production processes, saving energy resources and obtaining finished products with high consumer parameters. Acknowledgments. The research was carried out as part of the state program of scientific research “Quality and Efficiency of Agroindustrial Production”.

A system of automated control for the baking process that minimizes the probability of defects

We have designed and investigated a system of automated control for a carbon baking furnace that makes it possible to minimize the probability of defects. Based on the artificial neural networks, it differs from actual systems by the possibility to select the technique to control the process of baking in accordance with the starting conditions and the purpose of the process. Such purposes in the process for baking carbon articles include the obtaining of products with a minimum number of defective structures or a safe reduction in the length of the technological process to save energy. To minimize the number of defective structures in finished products, it is proposed to predict the probability of a defect in a product and, to reduce the duration of the technological process, to apply entropy as an indicator of product readiness. Solving the set tasks is based on the use of artificial neural networks with their capability to generalize data, namely different values of the probability of a defect in the various temperature fields in a baking furnace under operational modes. The issue of the limited amount of data required to train an artificial neural network is resolved by applying a special structure of artificial neural networks, an autoencoder. The designed control system has several advantages over the systems already in use. For example, it makes it possible to select a step of the descent that determines the accuracy of the optimal descent trajectory and, therefore, the accuracy of control in general. Selecting a descent criterion makes the designed system flexible when used under different conditions and for different control tasks. In case of an emergency interruption of the technological process of baking, a given system makes it possible to plan its further progress at any time, thereby providing for an effective continuation of the baking process and thus avoiding unjustified expenditures. The control algorithm used in the system makes it possible to predict the duration of baking and the value of fuel consumption and thus predict the economic efficiency of the technological process. To assess the efficiency of the proposed system of automated control over the baking process, we have performed an experimental study of the designed system operation compared to the actual control system based on a PID-controller. The study results have demonstrated that the use of the new control system makes it possible to reduce fuel consumption by 3‒4 m 3 /h. In addition, there is a decrease in the growth of the temperature of blanks during treatment, which positively affects the quality of the finished products

The influence of baking duration on the sensory quality and the nutrient content of mung bean biscuits

Baking is one of the cooking stages to determine the form, taste, and the color of biscuit. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different baking times on the sensory quality and nutrient content of mung bean biscuit. This research was designed using an application approach. Mung bean biscuit made from 60% mung bean flour, 20% wheat flour, and 20% cornstarch were baked at different baking times, i.e. 13, 15, 17, 19, and 21 mins, at 150°C. A total of ten trained panelist were asked to participate in the sensory testing using the scoring method. In addition, the mung bean biscuits were subjected to proximate analysis; energy content using the calorimeter; carbohydrate content using the Luff School method; protein content using the micro Kjeldahl method; fat content using the Soxhlet method; and fiber content was using the gravimetric method. The iron content of the mung bean biscuit was also tested using the colorimetric method. Data were analyzed with ANOVA followed by the Duncan test. It was observed that the baking times influenced the sensory attributes of the biscuit in terms of the color, aroma, and texture. The mung bean biscuits baked at 17 mins had the best overall sensory attributes with overall acceptance of 7.2 (maximum score = 9) with a sweet taste (score 7.0) and original mung bean flavor (score 6.7). Mung bean biscuits baked for 13 - 21 mins contained 445 - 454 kcal energy, carbohydrate content 62.57 - 65.02%, protein content 7.57 - 8.04%, fat content 17.94 - 19.15%, moisture content 5.11 - 6.75%, ash content 0.95 - 1.74%, and fiber content 1.50 - 2.75%. The iron content of the mung bean biscuit was also very high at 17.53 - 26.37 mg.

The sulfuric acid bake and leach route for processing of rare earth ores and concentrates: A review

Rare earths are critical to numerous materials and applications underpinning modern civilisation. The majority of the world's rare earth reserves are hosted in the three minerals bastnasite, monazite and xenotime. A key step in the processing of rare earth mineral concentrates is the chemical decomposition of the mineral structure to release the constituent elements. The sulfuric acid bake has historically been, and is also currently, one of the major processes used for this step. Current sulfuric acid bake processes for the Bayan Obo deposit in China and the Mt. Weld deposit in Australia together account for more than half of the world's rare earth production. In the sulfuric acid bake, the rare earth elements are converted to rare earth sulfates which are dissolved in a subsequent water leach. The conditions required to achieve mineral decomposition vary widely for different rare earth minerals. Adjustment of process conditions may often be used to achieve some degree of impurity rejection which is beneficial to downstream processing. This paper reviews the application of the sulfuric acid bake process to ores/concentrates containing mainly monazite, xenotime and bastnasite, and other less common rare earth minerals including euxenite, samarskite, fergusonite, loparite, allanite, eudialyte and pyrochlore. The reported effects of feed mineralogy and process variables such as reaction temperature, bake duration, acid to concentrate ratio and particle size are presented along with a brief review of current understanding of the bake chemistry and water leach results.

Water transport during bread baking: Impact of the baking temperature and the baking time.

The impact of the baking temperature on the moisture profile (in terms of water content), during bread baking was analyzed using a convection oven (three oven temperatures and different baking times). During baking, local water content and temperature were measured at different regions of the crust and crumb. There was found an increase in water content at the core. Water content reached a maximum level (at about 2.5%), with no effect of the baking temperature, and decreased slowly at advanced baking times. Regarding the crust, a theoretical model relating water flux to the driven force (temperature difference between the oven environment and the vaporization front) and the crust thermal resistance was validated with experimental values. Water losses were also reported. The water lost by bread contributes significantly to the energy consumption by this process and its reduction is of concern for conducting the process in a more sustainable manner. A better optimization of heat transfer between the surface (for coloration purposes) and the core (for inflation purposes) could help in this way, together with shorter baking duration and hence higher yield.

DETERMINING THE MODES OF TECHNOLOGICAL OPERATIONS IN THE PRODUCTION OF EINKORN WHEAT BREAD MADE OF FROZEN DOUGH AND ENRICHED WITH JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE FLOUR

Einkorn wheat is a grain crop characterized by the ability not to accumulate heavy metals from the soil. Besides, it is rich in selenium. Jerusalem artichoke is rich in inulin. From the combination of these two types of flour (einkorn wheat and Jerusalem artichoke), bread can be produced for people for who suffer from type 2 diabetes. It is proved that consuming bread enriched with Jerusalem artichoke for two months every day significantly reduces the glycaemic index of patients suffering from type 2 diabetes. To provide these patients systematically with fresh bread, the bread dough freezing technique is suggested. We have studied how the storage time of dough enriched with a flour mix (100 % einkorn wheat flour and Jerusalem artichoke flour) in the frozen state influence the modes of the main technological operations in the production of bread made of frozen dough, namely, defrosting, the time of increasing the temperature of the dough up to the operational level, the duration of the final fermentation and of baking. It has been established that the storage time of the dough in the frozen state reduces the duration of defrosting (which differs by 91 min. from that of the reference sample). However, there is a reverse effect, too, for the rise of the temperature of the dough to the operational level and for the final fermentation. The duration of the two above-mentioned operations is determined simultaneously. It is 5 min. more, compared with the reference sample. It has been established that the storage time of frozen dough does not affect the duration of baking. By the organoleptic indicators, the bread from the frozen dough is very similar to the reference sample.

Decrease in Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility of 10B21 Screws by Bake Aging

The effects of baking on the mechanical properties and fracture characteristics of low-carbon boron (10B21) steel screws were investigated. Fracture torque tests and hydrogen content analysis were performed on baked screws to evaluate hydrogen embrittlement (HE) susceptibility. The diffusible hydrogen content within 10B21 steel dominated the fracture behavior of the screws. The fracture torque of 10B21 screws baked for a long duration was affected by released hydrogen. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) result showed that hydrogen content decreased with increasing baking duration, and thus the HE susceptibility of 10B21 screws improved. Diffusible hydrogen promoted crack propagation in high-stress region. The HE of 10B21 screws can be prevented by long-duration baking.

Exploring the knowledge behind predictions in everyday cognition: an iterated learning study.

Making accurate predictions about events is an important but difficult task. Recent work suggests that people are adept at this task, making predictions that reflect surprisingly accurate knowledge of the distributions of real quantities. Across three experiments, we used an iterated learning procedure to explore the basis of this knowledge: to what extent is domain experience critical to accurate predictions and how accurate are people when faced with unfamiliar domains? In Experiment 1, two groups of participants, one resident in Australia, the other in China, predicted the values of quantities familiar to both (movie run-times), unfamiliar to both (the lengths of Pharaoh reigns), and familiar to one but unfamiliar to the other (cake baking durations and the lengths of Beijing bus routes). While predictions from both groups were reasonably accurate overall, predictions were inaccurate in the selectively unfamiliar domains and, surprisingly, predictions by the China-resident group were also inaccurate for a highly familiar domain: local bus route lengths. Focusing on bus routes, two follow-up experiments with Australia-resident groups clarified the knowledge and strategies that people draw upon, plus important determinants of accurate predictions. For unfamiliar domains, people appear to rely on extrapolating from (not simply directly applying) related knowledge. However, we show that people's predictions are subject to two sources of error: in the estimation of quantities in a familiar domain and extension to plausible values in an unfamiliar domain. We propose that the key to successful predictions is not simply domain experience itself, but explicit experience of relevant quantities.