Drought Levels Research Articles

Effects of multi-temporal scale drought on vegetation dynamics in Inner Mongolia from 1982 to 2015, China

Climate change is causing severe changes in the ecosystem, thus understanding how plants respond to drought is essential to protecting ecosystems in Inner Mongolia. Multi-temporal variations of drought in Inner Mongolia were studied using the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), and the vegetation growth was analyzed using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Moreover, the correlation between droughts of different lengths and NDVI was studied. Subsequently, we developed an optimal binary probability model to calculate the probability of vegetation productivity loss at different drought levels using the copula method. The results showed: (1) a weak aridification in the western parts and significant wetness in the central and eastern parts of Inner Mongolia; (2) a significant decreasing trend of NDVI from 1982 to 2009 and a significant increasing trend from 2010 to 2015; (3) a strong positive correlation between NDVI and SPEI and a difference between their related time scales based on soil textures; and (4) a higher probability of vegetation productivity loss with increasing drought at different drought levels.

UTILIZATION OF MADE AQUIFERS TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF CLEAN WATER TO DRINKING WATER

The need for clean water quality has increased every year, especially in big cities in Indonesia. This is triggered by the high population growth which causes the need for clean water to be urgently needed. Lack of water catchment areas and green land exacerbates the amount of clean water. In addition, the cause of the decline in clean water quality is also influenced by the many negative activities carried out by humans, one of which is the activity of disposing of garbage in the river, reservoir / setu and drainage areas. The use of chemicals, namely Poly Aluminum Cholrid (PACPOWDER) in the processing of river water or river water requires high operational costs, which results in high costs for people who subscribe to PDAM. The filtering pattern of water can be done by referring to the soil layer in the form of an aquifer, so that the water that is not good can be filtered in the presence of an aquifer and can purify the water into drinking water. The use of artificial aquifers that have currently been carried out by the Ministry of Public Works is through rain, where through the filtration of rainwater containing acidic levels it can be neutralized through artificial aquifers into clean water and can be applied to areas of high drought levels.

Spatial–temporal distribution and forecasting model of precipitation using dynamic-statistical information fusion

Abstract In order to explore the evolvement mechanism of hydrometeorological elements, spatial–temporal distribution of precipitation in the Huai river basin is studied by statistical drawing and empirical orthogonal function decomposition. How to make an objective combination for the predictive results of precipitation? Information fusion in data assimilation is introduced to merge the improved National Centers for Environmental Prediction coupled forecast system model version 2 (CFSv2) with the multilinear regression model. Firstly, in terms of time, the annual precipitation is apt to decline at most stations within 30 years, and precipitation mainly concentrates in the flood season. The characteristics of spatial distribution are similar to topographic features. It can also be found that precipitation gradually decreases from south to north. Secondly, from statistical forecasting, the relationship between precipitation and global sea surface temperature (SST) is explored. Prediction equation is established with SST and the average precipitation. Thirdly, from dynamic model forecasting, the CFSv2 original model and the CFSv2 statistical downscaling model are used to analyze the influence of model deviation on fusion prediction. The optimum interpolation assimilation method is applied for realizing the optimal integration of statistical and dynamic model prediction. Finally, the standardized precipitation index (SPI) is calculated by the combined forecasting of annual precipitation to evaluate drought conditions. The results show that SST is an important factor affecting precipitation, which may be applied as a forecasting direction with other factors. The merged precipitation prediction skill by the CFSv2 original model and the statistical model do not have the great promotion, which is still lower than the prediction skill only by the statistical model. However, the merged precipitation prediction skill by the CFSv2 statistical downscaling model and the statistical model is better than the prediction skills by the two models mentioned above, respectively. These indicate that when the prediction difference between the models is large, the merged prediction error cannot be minimized. When the prediction skill levels are equal, there is an improvement in the merged result. So, it is necessary to revise the climate dynamic model by downscaling. What is more, the obtained drought levels match the actual disaster conditions, providing theoretical support of hydrology and meteorology for the prevention of natural disasters.

Drought may be beneficial to the competitive advantage of Amaranthus spinosus

Abstract Drought can affect the growth and soil enzyme activities of invasive alien plants (IAPs). It is imperative to evaluate the competitive advantage of IAPs compared with that of the native species and the activities of soil enzymes under drought. This study aimed to evaluate the competitive advantage of the IAP Amaranthus spinosus that originated from tropical America compared with the native Chinese species A. tricolor and the activities of soil enzymes under drought. A competitive co-culture of A. spinosus and A. tricolor was established using a planting basin experiment. The two species were treated with different levels of drought, i.e. (i) the control; (ii) a light level of drought and (iii) a heavy level of drought. The functional traits, osmotic adjustment and the activities of antioxidant enzymes of the two species, as well as soil pH and electrical conductivity, contents of soil microbial biomass carbon and the activities of soil enzymes were determined. The relative competition intensity and relative dominance of A. spinosus were greater than those of A. tricolor under drought. Drought may provide an advantage to the competitive advantage of A. spinosus. Soil water-soluble salt content and sucrose hydrolytic power of A. spinosus were greater than those of A. tricolor under drought. The ability of A. spinosus to grow in soil with higher levels of water-soluble salt contents and sucrose hydrolytic power under drought may aid in its acquisition and utilization of nutrients.

Drought monitoring in tobacco plants by in-vivo electrochemical biosensor

Real-time monitoring along with early detection of drought levels was studied in transgenic tobacco plants using an in-vivo technique with a bio-electrochemical sensor. This study reports on the detection of the plant’s water deficit status as indicated by its reporter gene expression, caused due to drought stress. Plant-based in-vivo sensing provides real-time information generated by the actual hydration/dehydration status of the plant; It complements the information provided by ex-vivo sensors sampling the plant’s surroundings. In the method described here, the expression of the β-D-glucuronidase enzyme, expressed under drought conditions in genetically modified tobacco plants, is monitored using the enzyme-substrate (4-nitrophenyl β-D-glucuronide) reaction generating an electrochemically active product. The generated product is oxidized on the working electrode of a three-electrode electrochemical cell-on-chip mounted on the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum plants. The transport mechanisms and the real-time behavior of enzyme activity was studied using the Michaelis-Menten kinetic diffusion model. The obtained electrochemical signals fit the Michaelis-Menten diffusion kinetic model with the mean absolute error below 5%. The proposed bioelectrochemical sensor detected drought stress earlier than other conventional methods. The sensor applicability under dehydration periods up to 3 weeks is demonstrated showing the highlight and problems of this method.

Assessment the impacts of climate change on drought in the Ba River basin, Central Vietnam using Landsat remote sensing data

Sustainable management of the river basin is a profound challenge for environmental management in the context of climate change. Drought situations in a basin occur in relation to meteorological, hydrological, agricultural factors and climate change as well. In this study, remote sensing technology was applied to assess the impacts of climate change on drought in the Ba River basin, Central Vietnam. Drought in the basin has been created by land use/land cover changes in recent years, which has resulted in a sharp decrease in forest area in the period 1989 to 2019 (-41.5%) and a significant increase of agricultural land with 38.2%. Following that, the area of drought agriculture rose by 28.8%. The remarkably high drought areas in agricultural land were in El Nino years, 2016 (99.2%) and 2019 (87.3%), which indicated that under climate change impacts, a drought occurred more severely. Moreover, drought also appeared in the forest. The forest area deceased but the drought levels in the forest increased slightly since 2005 and hit a peak drought value in 2016 with 97.0% of forest area. During El Niño years, the precipitation, atmospheric moisture, and water flow in the basin were all lower than in previous years.

Effects of earthworm on tomato resistance under different drought levels

Effects of earthworm on tomato resistance under different drought levels

Combined physiological responses and differential expression of drought-responsive genes preliminarily explain the drought resistance mechanism of Lotus corniculatus.

Lotus corniculatus L. is a perennial high-quality legume forage species but is vulnerable to drought, and water deficit reduces productivity. To understand the drought response mechanism of L. corniculatus , we investigated physiological responses under drought stress and constructed suppression subtractive hybridisation (SSH) cDNA libraries to isolate drought-inducible genes and quantitatively study the expression levels of candidate drought- responsive genes. Genes encoding calmodulin-like protein, mitogen-activated protein kinase, indole-3-acetic acid-induced protein, ser/thr-protein phosphatase homolog-related proteins, and β -galactosidase-related protein with hydrolysis activity were isolated and considered the main factors that explained the resistance of L. corniculatus to drought. Approximately 632 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were identified and confirmed in the constructed SSH library. The Gene Ontology (GO) analysis revealed that these genes were involved mainly in transcription processes, protein synthesis, material metabolism, catalytic reactions, sugar metabolism, and photosynthesis. The interaction between the functions of these drought-related genes and the physiological responses preliminarily explains the drought resistance mechanisms of L. corniculatus .

Effect of mycorrhizal provision and watering frequency on productivity and fresh material of forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench)

Sorghum is a cereal crop that has the potential to be developed as animal feed. Sorghum plant experiencing drought stress will decrease their productivity. Efforts to overcome this problem are by adding mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae increase the ability of plants to adapt to the environment in the form of absorption of water and nutrients. This study aimed to determine the productivity of sorghum (plant height increase, plant length increase, number of leaves and stem diameter) and fresh weight of sorghum plant. The research treatments were mycorrhizal levels and watering frequency using a completely randomized design with a 3x3 factorial pattern. The mycorrhizal fungi provision consisted of three levels, namely without mycorrhizal (M0), mycorrhizal 10 g/polybag (M10), and mycorrhizal 20 g/polybag (M20). The frequency of watering consisted of watering everyday (A1), watering every four days (A4), and watering every eight days (A8). The provision of mycorrhizae significantly affected the productivity of sorghum and fresh weight of sorghum (p<0.05). The difference in watering frequency affected the increase in sorghum plant height (p<0.05). However, it did not significantly affect the increase in length, stem diameter, number of leaves, and fresh weight of sorghum. In conclusion, mycorrhizae can significantly improved the productivity of sorghum plants developed in areas with high drought levels.

Forecasting the Future Drought Indices Due to the Effects of Climate Change in Al Najaf City, Iraq.

Drought is a natural disaster associated with a shortage of water availability for specified region within a specific time period. The impacts of drought are significant and extend to damage many important life aspects such as environmental, economic, and social activities. The forecasting of the drought events is an essential element for planning this disaster, reducing its effectiveness and response. The three characteristic frequency, intensity, and time period are the key parts for forecasting and assessment of droughts. Here, two drought indices (The Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI), standardized precipitation index (SPI)) were used for forecasting of the future drought within Al Najaf city, Iraq. Thirty years meteorological data (average monthly precipitation and temperature) were used for the period (2021–2050) downloaded from the site of the Centre for Environmental Data Analysis (CEDA) for five grid points to cover overall study area. The computation of these indices conducted at a 12-month time scale and included the calculation of potential evapotranspiration by Thorthwaite method. The temporal drought intensity as well as drought frequency configurations were calculated and analyzed for each drought index. The results showed that the general average drought level expected will mildly dry while the maximum drought level expected will extremely dry. The more severe seasons of drought were forecasted in the years 2038, 2034 and 2021, respectively. Also, the prevailing event will be a one year drought and the maximum drought interval occurred within the study period will four consecutive years, with a 3.33% exceedance probability.

High-resolution propagation time from meteorological to agricultural drought at multiple levels and spatiotemporal scales

Meteorological drought (MD) is the source of agricultural drought (AD), and in-depth understanding of the propagation process from MD to AD can help AD early warning. However, previous studies primarily focused on average state of propagation time (PT) rather than from the perspective of various drought levels, and had coarse spatiotemporal resolutions (monthly and basin scales), and also ignored the PT during critical stages of crop water demand. To fill the knowledge gap, this study used the standardized precipitation index (SPI) and standardized soil moisture index (SSMI) to characterize MD and AD. Then, a framework for high-resolution PT identification under different drought levels based on Copula theory and conditional probability was proposed. Taking the rain-fed agricultural region of Loess Plateau (RFLP) as an example, the PT of the critical stages of water demand for local crops (spring maize, winter wheat) was calculated respectively. Result showed that: (1) PT in summer and autumn is shorter than those in winter and spring, and the higher drought level, the faster the spreading rate, in which the PT in spring, summer, autumn, and winter under extreme MD conditions were 3–15, 1–6, 1–8 and 4–16 ten days, respectively; (2) it should be noted that the central part of RFLP is a hotspot, with a shorter PT than any surrounding area; (3) PT is mainly related to local water and heat characteristics, and high potential evapotranspiration tends to accelerate the propagation process, while sufficient soil moisture has a good buffering effect on MD and can slow down the propagation; (4) it was observed that PT in the jointing-heading stage of wheat was significantly shortened, which should be of great concern to the local agricultural authorities. In general, this study sheds new insights into high spatiotemporal resolution drought propagation, which is helpful for AD risk management.

Physio-biochemical Responses of In Vitro Cooking Banana Musa paradisiaca cv Lang towards Pseudo Induced Drought Stress by Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)

Musa paradisiaca cv Lang belongs to cooking banana group, and it has high potential to be used in banana chips production. Like other cultivars, M. paradisiaca cv Lang is susceptible towards water shortage, therefore affecting banana growth and productivity. In this study, to mimic the drought condition, pseudo-drought stress was given to in vitro Lang banana seedlings by adding polyethylene glycol (PEG). Overall, decrement of roots length and chlorophyll (Chl) content was displayed by the seedlings exposed to 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5% (w/v) of PEG after three weeks of exposure. The proline content, total soluble protein content, and antioxidant capacity in leaf and roots, however, countered differently towards different levels of drought. Proline content showed the highest in leaf of 2% (w/v) PEG-treated seedling (12.66±0.38 µmoles/g) while the total soluble protein content showed the highest in roots of 5% (w/v) of PEG-treated seedling (30.65±1.07 mg/g FW). Antioxidant capacity of stressed seedlings revealed the catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (POD), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities were the highest in the leaf of 1% (w/v) (10.69±5.06 µmol/min/mg), 4% (w/v), (0.079±0.03 µmol/min/mg), and 5% (w/v) (9.11±8.47 µmol/min/mg) of PEG- treated seedlings, respectively. Meanwhile, the highest CAT, POD, and APX activities in the roots were determined in 3% (w/v) (0.49±0.04 µmol/min/mg), 2% (w/v) (0.03±0.02 µmol/min/mg), and 3% (w/v) (16.69±0.5 µmol/min/mg) of PEG-treated seedlings, respectively. These data show that PEG can be a priming agent to induce defense system at seedling stage of banana, which could enhance their survivability during ex vitro acclimatization.

Evaluation of drought on agricultural land-use change: A case study of coastal districts, Ben Tre province

Ben Tre is a coastal province in the Mekong Delta heavily affected by negative impacts of climate change and sea level rise, such as freshwater shortage and increased salinity intrusion during the dry season. This research aimed to develop a remote sensing approach, using time series data to assess drought development for the coastal districts (Ba Tri, Binh Dai, and Thanh Phu) in Ben Tre province. The Temperature Vegetation Dryness Index (TVDI) was analyzed based on the time-series Landsat 8 OLI data, which were obtained continuously from 2009 - 2019 to evaluate drought changes over time. The drought maps of 2009 and 2019 were established and the results showed that there were four levels of drought, including non-drought, slight drought, moderate drought and severe drought. Areas with non-drought and slight drought were reported at 5.65% and 35.34% (about 6,098 ha and 38,146 ha), respectively; while about 53.14% and 5.87% of the study areas were classified as moderate and severe drought (about 57,354 ha and 6,332 ha), respectively. The assessment of fluctuations in the period 2009-2019 showed that the areas of non-drought and slight drought tended to decrease while the areas of moderate and severe drought increased. The drought was positively related to agricultural land-use change as shown by the following formula loge(Pi/(1 - Pi)) = 7.985 * TVDI - 6.746. Drought tended to decrease in the areas where the bare land was changed to lands for perennial crops, rice crops and aquaculture, while drought tended to increase in land-use types of rice and annual crops.

Future Projection of Drought Vulnerability over Northeast Provinces of Iran during 2021–2100

Future projection of drought vulnerability is vital for northern provinces of Iran, including North Khorasan, Khorasan-Razavi, and South Khorasan, due to the highly dependent of their economy on agriculture. The study is motivated by the fact that no research has been conducted to project the future Drought Vulnerability Index (DVI). DVI consist of three components of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptation capacity. More exposure levels of drought, higher sensitivity value, and lower adaptation capacity lead to a higher amount of vulnerability. Combined ERA-Interim-observation meteorological data, CMIP5 models under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, and national census data are used to estimate DVI in the past and future periods. CanESM2, GFDL-ESM2M, and CNRM-CM5 General Circulation Model (GCM) are selected from CMIP5 based on Taylor diagram results. The delta-change technique was selected for statistical downscaling of GCM outputs because it is most widely used. The study period is regarded as 1986–2005 as observation and four future 20-years periods during 2021–2100. Results indicated that the dissipation of the class of “very low” vulnerability is eminent in the near future period of 2021–2040 under the RCP4.5 scenario, and all provinces would experience a new worse class of “very high” vulnerability at 2081–2100, both under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios.

Effects of exogenous glycine betaine application on some physiological and biochemical properties of cotton (G. hirsutum L.) plants grown in different drought levels

Drought stress significantly reduces the growth and yield of cotton plants; therefore, reducing the damage caused by drought stress and improving the plant growth are highly important. The aims of this study were to investigate some of physiological and biochemical properties of cotton plants exposed to different drought levels and to determine the extent of improvement obtained by exogenous glycine betaine treatment for the damages caused by the adverse effects of drought. Three drought levels were created using PEG (Polyethylene glycol 6000) solution (0%, 10% and 20%). The drought groups were also divided into 2 subgroups by using 0 (control: glycine betaine solution was not applied) and 2 mM glycine betaine solution. The pot experiment was established in a growth chamber with 3 replications and the experiment repeated twice. The changes in the contents of contents of chlorophyll a and b, carotenoid, total dissolved protein, total dissolved carbohydrate and some nutrients were investigated. Chlorophyll a and b, calcium, magnesium, sodium and phosphorus concentrations were decreased, while carotenoid, total dissolved protein and carbohydrate, potassium contents increased with the increasing drought level. The results revealed that adverse effects of drought stress on cotton plants were alleviated by exogenous application of glycine betaine.

The impact of climate risks on Russia’s economic development: example of the North Caucasian Federal District

This article presents an analysis of climate risks structure and effects on the Russian Federation's economic development. Despite the existed theoretical background, it is not clear about the leading risk factor, human adaptation to it, and the subsequent effect on the economy. This happens since some climate risks can be controlled; therefore, their impact on the regional economy is minimal. Thus, we are interested in the scope of certain climate risks affecting the Russian Federations economic situation. We have selected the North Caucasian Federal District because it is strongly susceptible to the most severe climate risks as droughts and floods. Considering the complexity of the climate risk formation process, we use mixed-methods. It allows identifying the quantitative component and analyzing the object in the framework of the existing theoretical background. During our research, we determined the cause of climate risk formation in the Russian Federation. With the collected empirical data for 2010-2013 regarding the level of drought, precipitation, and crop productivity, we have compared the region's economic situation with climate risks. It was determined that despite the clear manifestation of climate risks in the North Caucasian Federal District, the economic damage to the region is minimal due to the high level of the region's resistance to the existing threats and their localization. Nevertheless, guided by the theoretical and methodological basis of the topic under study and revised data on the migration loss of the region, we can assume that the North Caucasian FDs climate risks are expressed in the concept of climate migration, and this process has an increasing dynamic.

The Assessment of Climate Change Impact on Meteorological Draught Susceptability on Sampean Watershed

Drought disasters that occur in the Sampean watershed from time to time have increased, both the intensity of events and the area affected by drought. The general objective of this research is to develop an assessment method for the impact of climate chan ge on vulnerability to drought disasters based on atmospheric circulation data. The specific objectives of this study are to model rainfall predictions based on atmospheric circulation data, predict rainfall in various climate change scenarios (Intergovernm ental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC – AR5), and assess vulnerability to drought disasters using a meteorological approach. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is one way to analyze the drought index in an area which was developed previous researcher. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is designed to quantitatively determine the rainfall deficit with various time scales. The advantage of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is that it is enough to use monthly rainfall data to compare drou ght levels between regions even with different climate types. To facilitate the presentation of the data base on the identification of d rought susceptibility, we need a system that can assist in building, storing, managing and displaying geographically ref erenced information in the form of spatial mapping. This research facilitates monitoring of the area of drought-prone areas, predicts drought levels, prevents future drought disasters, and prepares plans for rebuilding drought-prone areas in the Sampean watershed.

Trend Analysis of Rainfall in the Phu Quoc Island

Assess the trend of rainfall change in Phu Quoc island is an interesting topic which establishes a scientific basis for rainfall forecast trends as well as regional development planning. Rainfall measurement data from 1985 to 2018 was used to analyse with different methods included Sen’s slope, linear regression, Mann-Kendall (MK) test, CV coefficient (Coefficient of Variation), PCI (Precipitation Concentration Index); examine drought level over time by using SPI - standardized rainfall index. Results show that, according to the linear regression analysis, regional annual rainfall is not much fluctuated, the rainy season and annual rainfall tend to decrease, while rainfall in the dry season tends to increase. According to Sen’s slope chart, July rain gains highest increasement, while that of August tends to decrease most. In general, the precipitation concentration index revealed the presence of a high and very high concentration of rainfall.&#x0D;

Water-Use Efficiency of Co-occurring Sky-Island Pine Species in the North American Great Basin.

Water-use efficiency (WUE), weighing the balance between plant transpiration and growth, is a key characteristic of ecosystem functioning and a component of tree drought resistance. Seasonal dynamics of tree-level WUE and its connections with drought variability have not been previously explored in sky-island montane forests. We investigated whole-tree transpiration and stem growth of bristlecone (Pinus longaeva) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) within a high-elevation stand in central-eastern Nevada, United States, using sub-hourly measurements over 5 years (2013–2017). A moderate drought was generally observed early in the growing season, whereas interannual variability of summer rains determined drought levels between years, i.e., reducing drought stress in 2013–2014 while enhancing it in 2015–2017. Transpiration and basal area increment (BAI) of both pines were coupled throughout June–July, resulting in a high but relatively constant early season WUE. In contrast, both pines showed high interannual plasticity in late-season WUE, with a predominant role of stem growth in driving WUE. Overall, bristlecone pine was characterized by a lower WUE compared to limber pine. Dry or wet episodes in the late growing season overrode species differences. Our results suggested thresholds of vapor pressure deficit and soil moisture that would lead to opposite responses of WUE to late-season dry or wet conditions. These findings provide novel insights and clarify potential mechanisms modulating tree-level WUE in sky-island ecosystems of semi-arid regions, thereby helping land managers to design appropriate science-based strategies and reduce uncertainties associated with the impact of future climatic changes.

Drought Hazard Modelling of Klaten Regency Central Java Using AHP and TOPSIS Method

According to information of areas at high risk of drought provided by Central Java disaster risk assessment in 2016 - 2020, Klaten Regency is in the top ten at high risk of drought in Central Java. Drought is an annual disaster in this region, which usually occurs during the dry season. The impact of the drought has caused some areas to experience a lack of clean water. For the purpose of disaster mitigation in anticipating and minimizing drought disasters losses, it is necessary to analyze the level of drought with a decision-making system by comparing two methods, namely the AHP with TOPSIS. Both methods are decision-making methods that are composed of various criteria to obtain an alternative sequence of choices. Both the AHP and TOPSIS methods produces weight values and a positive ideal solution value, respectively. These are used as input data in the mapping of drought vulnerability analysis with Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The results of the analysis are visualized with a map that shows the level of drought vulnerability. AHP and TOPSIS method decision making generates the order of the drought classes in predicting the distribution of areas experiencing drought. To validate the model, the authors compare the results of the analysis of drought vulnerability of the two methods with drought data from BPBD (Local Agency for Disaster Prevention) and DPUPR (Public Works and Public Housing Department). The results show that AHP provides better results than TOPSIS based on results validation with BPBD and DPUPR data. By comparing the two models with BPBD data, the results show that the percentage of AHP suitability is higher than TOPSIS at 47,619% and 19,048% respectively.