Drinking Water Services Research Articles

Socio-economic determinants of public healthcare

The main socio-economic mission of the healthcare system is to participate in the formation of workforce, strengthen the labor potential of society, and promote economic growth. The national health serves as an important economic resource. The COVID-19 pandemic has proven that losses due to illness and absence of employees from the workplace have negative economic consequences. The bibliometric study conducted via the VOSViewer bibliometric analysis of Scopus publications in 2014-2024 for the query “socio-economic determinants of public healthcare” allowed to structure the scientific work within 8 clusters. The latter showed leading researchers from the USA, the UK, India, Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy and Spain. In 2020-2023, due to the pandemic, publication activity in this area increased significantly. The article conducts a regression analysis of the impact of socio-economic determinants on the level of public healthcare. The public healthcare index is the population life expectancy. Among socio-economic determinants, there are nine components as factor attributes: current healthcare expenditures per capita; income shares of the richest and poorest – 10% and 20%; mortality rates up to 5 years and from suicide; number of people using at least basic sanitation and safe drinking water services, etc. The data for Ukraine from the World Bank statistical base for 2002-2019 were used as an information fundament. The multiple regression generation by the method of stepwise exclusion of variables was implemented using the MS Excel software. The article formulates a list of recommendations for increasing life expectancy. It includes measures to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, development of healthcare infrastructure. The research also ensures availability of medical services to the population. The study educates and informs the population about the hygiene importance, proper use of sanitation and the consequences of inadequate sanitary conditions for health. Relevance of affordable sanitation improvement programmes for the poor is discussed.

Estimating drinking water turbidity using images collected by a smartphone camera

ABSTRACT The lack of robust water quality data in drinking water services in many low-income settings can be attributed to inadequate funding for regular monitoring using analytical equipment. Turbidity is an indicator that is relatively quick and easy to measure; however, it still requires a turbidimeter and a trained operator. This study developed an entire smartphone camera-based application to measure turbidity in drinking water, removing both the need for external equipment and skilled labour. The application was created using a convolutional neural network, able to classify water samples into eight turbidity bins ranging from 0 to 40 NTU. The turbidity of the samples was created using formazine and kaolin clay suspensions. The in-built camera of a smartphone was used to capture images of water samples with known turbidity values. This algorithm was then embedded in a smartphone application, thereby providing an easy-to-use tool for users to estimate turbidity. Specifically, the protocol for using this application was developed with the intention that it will be used in low-resource settings by laypersons. Formazine samples achieved a turbidity classification accuracy of 98.7%, while kaolin clay samples achieved 90.9% accuracy using this method, which provides an encouraging proof of concept, as justification for further testing and improvements.

Seroprevalence of Hepatitis-E Virus-Immunoglobulin G and its association with Chronic Liver Disease.

Viral hepatitis is a major public health concern in low-middle income countries. Hepatitis-E infection (HEV) is found globally but most prevalent in low-income countries especially those with poor sanitation systems, access to clean drinking water and health services. Superinfection with HEV in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) can cause severe hepatic decompensation leading to increased morbidity and mortality. To determine the frequency of seroprevalence of Hepatitis-E virus Immunoglobulin g (IgG) and its association with chronic liver disease. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Asian Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Pakistan from January till May 2022. A total of 196 patients of aged ≥ 18 years, presenting in gastroenterology clinics were included in the study after informed consent. Among 196 patients, one third of patient were male (73.5%). Out of which 162 (82.7%) had liver disease and 34 (17.3%) were without liver disease. The median age of patient was 45 (33-51) years. The overall seroprevalence of HEV IgG among study population was 69.4%. HEV IgG was present in 114 and 22 in CLD and non CLD patients respectively. Multivariable regression shows no association between seroprevalence of HEV in CLD and non-CLD patient (AOR 1.02, 95% CI 0.45-2.313). Our study showed high frequency of HEV seropositivity. No difference was observed in HEV seropositivity among CLD and non-CLD patients.

Development and assessment of a vulnerability index for access to rural drinking water and sanitation services in the semi-arid region of north–central Chile

Abstract The present study aimed to develop and assess a vulnerability index for access to rural drinking water and sanitation services, which was applied to 42 Rural Sanitation Services in the Coquimbo Region, Chile. For the development and assessment of the vulnerability index, the construction of composite indicator methodology was employed. An underlying model based on 65 indicators, linked to nine sub-pillars and three pillars, was established. In addition, the COINTool software was used for the development and analysis of the composite indicator results. The vulnerability index results showed medium vulnerability at regional and provincial levels, with a greater degree of vulnerability at a commune level. At a Rural Sanitation Services level, 2.4% of the evaluated services presented high vulnerability, 73.8% presented medium vulnerability, and 23.8% presented low vulnerability. The vulnerability index values obtained for the Rural Sanitation Services fluctuated from a minimum value of 32.3% to a maximum value of 64.1%. The significance of the vulnerability indicator developed and assessed lies in its high potential as a tool and/or methodology to monitoring, from a multidimensional perspective, the effectiveness of policies, strategies, and/or actions implemented at the level of Rural Sanitation Services, contributing to strengthened decision-making in vulnerability reduction.

Assessment of Peak Water Usage among Residential Consumers across Several Drinking Water Service Areas

Public drinking water service providers must comprehensively understand and effectively characterise user demands, especially during peak hours, which not only impact the maximum demand within the distribution network but also determine the dimensions of interior networks within buildings. Residential consumers show different consumption patterns based on socioeconomic factors, spatial location, climatic conditions and the consistency and quality of service delivered by public service providers. This study focused on assessing 1,317,584 users distributed across four distinct service areas in Bogotá, Colombia. To achieve this, a stratified random sampling of 1233 residential subscribers was conducted and 320 reference digital Y290 Aquabus micro-meters were installed to characterise the four service areas. The installations were grouped into sets of 320 users until the entire sample of 1233 subscribers was encompassed. The results demonstrated that the rational method provided the most accurate fit for estimating the probable maximum flow rates compared to the values measured and, consequently, is the most suitable method for application within the region of interest. However, whereas the Hunter Unal method displayed a reasonable fit, it tended to underestimate the size of internal networks within buildings. The remaining methods, such as the British, square root, simultaneity, Hunter, NTC 1500 Hunter and Chilean methods, did not yield significant adjustments and tended to overestimate the probable maximum flow rates as well as the internal networks within buildings. The results indicate that, depending on the method used to calculate the probable maximum flow or design flow of the internal network, there can be a deviation factor when compared to the actual peak flow measured (real maximum flow). This deviation factor ranges from 0.79 (calculated less than measured) to 3.77 (calculated greater than measured). Additionally, a sizing case study was conducted, which involved applying all methods to a scenario involving a residential user. This study aimed to determine the variation expected in the estimation of the diameter of the supply pipe to the internal network when using the flow results from different methods. This analysis serves to conclude the research.

Nitrate electro-bioremediation and water disinfection for rural areas

Nitrate-contaminated groundwater is a pressing issue in rural areas, where up to 40 % of the population lacks access to safely managed drinking water services. The high costs and complexity of centralised treatment in these regions exacerbate this problem. To address this challenge, the present study proposes electro-bioremediation as a more accessible decentralised alternative. Specifically, the main focus of this study is developing and evaluating a compact reactor designed to accomplish simultaneous nitrate removal and groundwater disinfection. Significantly, this study has established a new benchmark for nitrate reduction rate within bioelectrochemical reactors, achieving the maximum reported rate of 5.0 ± 0.3 kg NO3− m−3NCC d−1 at an HRTcat of 0.7 h. Furthermore, thein-situ generation of free chlorine was effective for water disinfection, resulting in a residual concentration of up to 4.4 ± 1.1 mg Cl2 L−1 in the effluent at the same HRTcat of 0.7 h. These achievements enabled the treated water to meet the drinking water standards for nitrogen compounds (nitrate, nitrite, and nitrous oxide) as well as pathogens content (T. coliforms, E. coli, and Enterococcus). In conclusion, this study demonstrates the potential of the electro-bioremediation of nitrate-contaminated groundwater as a decentralised water treatment system in rural areas with a competitive operational cost of 1.05 ± 0.16 € m−3.

Analysis of the Availability and Sustainable Management of Clean Water and Sanitation in Bogor Regency

The provision of clean water includes several main components, including: raw water source unit, processing unit, production unit, transmission unit and production unit. Water is used by humans for various daily needs. Water needs for individual needs vary for each place and each level of need. The higher the standard of living in a place, the greater the need for water. The goal that must be achieved in managing clean water in stages is to have access to household drinking water services reaching 100% by 2030. The next achievement is the achievement and realization of sanitation and clean water management for vulnerable community groups at 68.77%, shown by this achievement in 2026. To achieve the number of sub-districts or villages implementing community-based total sanitation of 98%. Meanwhile, the achievement of the proportion of households served by a centralized clean water waste management system is 71.66% in 2026. The proportion of households served by a fecal sludge management system until this data is published has not been covered so the baseline set at 20% in 2021 will be achieved in 2023 The Bogor Regency Government's target in establishing this feces processing concept is very good.

Assessment of the level of drinking water services that are perceived as safe in Metro City, Lampung

Self-supply water source systems are still widely used in Indonesia, such as in Metro City, Lampung, where only 5,05% of households are served by piped drinking water services. Metro City is known to occupy the fourth position as an area that has clean water quality problems in Indonesia. Therefore, this study aims to determine the variability of the level of drinking water services that are perceived as safe by households perceptions of safety, taste, appearance, smell, reliability, and availability of drinking water sources. The method used is longitudinal monitoring of drinking water sources in households with monthly surveys. The monitoring results show that during the 6 months of the surveys Non- self-supply systems (n=147) are known to be safer than self-supply systems (n= 115) with the percentage of 98% and 95%. The source of drinking water with the highest safety level is refill water and bottled water (100%) which is the most consistent level of safety. Thus, the results of this study are expected to increase public awareness and the local government concerned to obtain an equitable supply of safe drinking water.

Reliability study of raw water in the Krueng Aceh River for Banda Aceh City piped drinking water service system development

Increasing population leads to higher demand for clean water. Clean water supply in Banda Aceh City is entrusted to the Tirta Daroy Water Supply Company with a capacity of 730 l/s with raw water sources from the Krueng Aceh River, Krueng Aceh Watershed. Master Plan of the Banda Aceh City Drinking Water Supply System 2015 was planned to increase production capacity by 1,916 l/s by 2035. So, a reliable raw water resources are needed to meet the increase in production capacity of 1,186 l/s. The reliability of raw water resources can be attempted by statistical analysis of minimum successive dry discharge data of duration 1,2,7,15, and 30 days with theoretical distribution fit tests carried out. The types of distributions used to analyze extreme dry discharge are the Gumbel, Log-Normal, and Log-Pearson III distributions. From the results, the Krueng Aceh River can meet the raw water sources needs until 2035 with the dependable flow of QR20-1 = 4.74 m3/s. Increasing production capacity is planned by building a processing plant at two stages, 800 l/s and 400 l/s.

Benefits, costs and enabling conditions to achieve ‘water for all’ in rural and remote Australia

Australia will not meet Sustainable Development Goal target 6.1, to “achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all” by 2030, unless water service provision is improved to hundreds of small (less than 10,000 residents), rural and remote (SRR) communities. We have estimated the national benefits of a programme to upgrade drinking water services to ensure ‘good quality’ for 395 Australian SRR communities using a stated preference survey of 3,523 participants reflective of the Australian population. Using multiple model estimates, we calculated the willingness to pay at between AU$324 and AU$847 per Australian household per year for 10 years. Aggregating across the relevant Australian population, we calculated the aggregate willingness to pay for water quality improvements at AU$1.2–4.7 billion yr−1, or AU$8.3–33.2 billion as a 10-year net present value. We further estimated the capital and operating costs to provide ‘good-quality’ drinking water in the 395 SRR communities under three scenarios; the costs range from AU$0.51 to AU$3.29 million per community and, in total, from AU$0.2 billion to AU$1.3 billion.

Potential for Saving Drinking Water Through the Use of Rainwater in Social Housing in Viçosa-Brazil

[Objective] The main objective of this research was to evaluate the potential for saving drinking water by using rainwater as a source of supply for non-potable purposes in two neighborhoods with social housing in the municipality of Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. [Methodology] The consumption statistics for each month of 2020 were used for each of the homes comprising the Benjamin José Cardoso and Sol Nascente Housing Complexes, and the fraction of drinking water that is destined in homes for non-potable purposes was estimated. The information corresponding to the monthly rainfall records of the last 50 years was analyzed and the monthly volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each house was calculated. [Results] The average monthly volume of rainwater that could be captured through the roof area of each dwelling is 3.39 m3. During the rainy months of the year, it would be feasible to save a higher percentage of water than that allocated for non-potable purposes. Sizing a rainwater reservoir that exceeds the monthly needs for non-potable purposes would allow the surplus of collected water to supply the liquid during the dry season. [Conclusions] Since the average percentage of savings in drinking water for both neighborhoods exceeded 53%, the saving of the monthly consumption can contribute to the reduction of payments for the drinking water service and the consumption of the liquid in the municipality, particularly during drought months.

The Link between Water Scarcity and Forced Migration: An In-depth Analysis of Chaubise Rural Municipality Ward No 3 and 4, Dhankuta District

Using inductive and deductive methodologies, this study uses a mixed-method research design to examine migration patterns in Chaubise Rural Municipality Wards No. 3 and 4, Dhankuta District. A thorough study was built using quantitative data that was gathered using structured questionnaires and qualitative information. The study reveals a noteworthy occurrence of permanent migration, primarily driven by economic development, increased work opportunities, restricted access to clean water, and conflicts between people and wildlife. Economic expansion and better job chances stand out among these elements as the main inducers of migration. Access to drinking water is still a critical issue, although it is a secondary element due to communities' historical rejection of piped drinking water services and related levies.

Evaluation of the Primary Pipe Network at Banua Anyar Booster Pump as an Effort to Reduce Water Loss in the Service area of Northern Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan

Recorded as the best PDAM in South Kalimantan in Banjarmasin City. PT. Bandarmasih Perseroda Drinking Water (PAM Bandarmasih) is still facing the problem of high water loss rates of 29.07% in 2022, which is still far above the National Medium Term Development Plan (RPJMN) target with a minimum water loss value of 20%. One of the ways PDAM can reduce water loss is by evaluating the pipe network in a District Meter Area (DMA). This research focuses on evaluating the primary pipe network in the area served by the Banua Anyar booster which serves 18 DMAs. Network evaluation using EPANET 2.0 software. The evaluation results show that the diameter of the primary pipe from the booster pump to the Banua Anyar pipe bridge has quite high unit-head loss and flow velocity values due to flow friction with the pipe surface. It is necessary to change the diameter of the primary pipe used in the Banua Anyar booster network from a diameter of 400 mm to 600 mm which can reduce the rate of water loss by 6.3%. In the future, it is hoped that the value of water loss at PDAM Banjarmasin City can be reduced and the affordability of drinking water services for the people of Banjarmasin City can increase.

Levels of Access to Water and their Impacts on The Quality of Life

Structured abstract: to evaluate the effects of different conditions of accessibility to drinking water in rural population. Purpose: the way in which water is supplied at home directly influences the health of its inhabitants. In 2017, eight out of ten people living in rural areas did not have access to basic drinking water services or safely managed water services, of which nearly half lived in least developed countries and rural areas. Method/design/approach: a systematic review was carried out, through metadata analysis, selection of methodologies adopted and the relationships established by the authors between different conditions of access to water and hygiene and health, well-being, water quality, time and cost. The main methodologies adopted are questionnaires and univariate statistical analysis, applied in an associated or not. Results and conclusion: the closer the rural household is to the water collection point, the better the conditions for developing their productive activities. High indoor plumbing costs, especially for individual catchment solutions, may force some households to use unsafe sources of water supply. It was possible to identify the impacts of the lack of internal plumbing and the difficulty of accessing water in rural communities. Research implication: understand and highlight the relationship between internal plumbing and its possible effects on humans, especially in rural areas. Originality/value: it can provide subsidies for public policies on internal plumbing, assisting in the construction of indicators that guide the elaboration and evaluation of these policies.

An Analysis of the Efficiency of Using Fixed Assets of Vodokanal JSC

The climatic features of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) require increased reliability of engineering life systems, and therefore the volume of housing and communal services provided far exceeds the average Russian indicators. One of the backbone enterprises in this industry is Vodokanal JSC. Vodokanal JSC is a monopolist in the field of water supply and sanitation and plays a key role in the economic and social development of the republic. The relevance of the study is explained by the fact that fixed assets provide the material and technical possibility of providing residents of the city of Yakutsk with high-quality drinking water and sanitation services. Maintaining fixed assets in normal technical condition and improving their use is the key to the success and reliability of any enterprise. The purpose of the research is to study the role of fixed assets in the activities of Vodokanal JSC. The analysis of literature sources shows a variety of methods for analyzing fixed assets. The authors selected two main areas: an analysis of the condition and movement of fixed assets and calculation of indicators of their effectiveness. The analysis showed that the fixed assets are generally in satisfactory condition, as evidenced by the calculated indicators of the efficiency of stock return, capital coefficient, and stock ratio. The main ways to improve the use of fixed assets are proposed. To conduct the study, the data of the financial statements of Vodokanal JSC were used, general scientific methods and techniques of the study were used.

Assessment of Factors Associated with Life Expectancy Gap Based on the Preston Curve: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Some countries experience lower or higher life expectancy than what is predicted based on their income. This study examines why life expectancy deviation is experienced with the aim of exploring which factors and conditions contribute to better health outcome (life expectancy) at low cost.
 Methods: In this study at the first stage, the well-known Preston curve is reproduced and updated using the cross-sectional data of variables of life expectancy at birth (years) and per capita gross domestic product (GDP) by purchasing power parity (PPP) of 182 countries around the World in 2018 based on the latest available data. After estimating the deviation of each countries life expectancy from the curve, the characteristics of countries with more than four years of positive (group 1) and negative (group 2) gaps from the curve were compared by applying the mean comparison test of two independent groups (t-test).
 Results: The identified drivers of gains or losses in longevity relative to income included using at least basic sanitation (P = 0.012) and drinking water services (P = 0.045), Universal Health Coverage (UHC) (P = 0.012), access to electricity (P = 0.004), CO2 emissions (P = 0.037), inequality in income (P = 0.003), health expenditure per capita (P = 0.000), non-communicable (P = 0.000) and communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal, and nutrition conditions (P = 0.000), literacy rate (P = 0.057), and road injuries (P = 0.001).
 Conclusion: Better health outcome in countries and regions with relatively low income or few resources can be achieved that would be critical for global improvement in population health. However, it needs to take effective measures and is of great importance for policy-making.

Evaluasi Penetapan Tarif Air Minum Pada Blud Air Minum Kota Cimahi

Clean water is one of the necessities of life. Almost all human activities require clean water, from drinking, bathing, cooking, washing and other activities. In Indonesia, Regional Drinking Water Companies (PDAMs) are responsible for community drinking water services. The Cimahi City Government organized drinking water services for the community by providing UPTD Air Minum in 2014 and became BLUD Air Minum in 2020 to gain more flexibility in managing the economy. BLUD Cimahi City's revenue comes from water sales, so it is expected that the fixed tariff will get optimal revenue while being able to cover company expenses. One of the principles of water tariff setting is full cost coverage, i.e. that all company costs can be covered by tariff revenues. Therefore, to achieve this principle, a Break Even Point calculation is conducted, i.e. where the total revenue from the sales volume is equal to the total costs. Through this research, it can be determined whether the drinking water tariff of BLUD Air Minum Cimahi City can cover all company costs. The research used is a qualitative and descriptive approach. Information was obtained through interviews and documentation. The results of this study indicate that BLUD Air Minum is appropriate in setting the Drinking Water tariff, because at the beginning of the fourth quarter or October, the Drinking Water tariff revenue has reached the break-even point.Keywords: Tariff, Cost, Break Even Point
 Keywords: Tariff, Cost, Break Even Point

Population Growth and Water Consumption: Chachapoyas Case, 2011 - 2021

Objective: The present research aims to evaluate the impact of population growth on the consumption of drinking water in the city of Chachapoyas during the period from 2022 to 2021 and project the trend until the year 2050. Method: The research followed a mixed longitudinal approach of basic study, with a non-experimental design, involving descriptive, explanatory, and correlational analyses. Based on 11 yearly observations (2011-2021), data from the Municipal Company of Drinking Water and Sewerage Services (EMUSAP) were used for a 20-year projection in Chachapoyas. Result: The results showcase Chachapoyas as an oasis amid the scarcity of drinking water. 96% of water consumption is concentrated in households, while 4% is attributed to the commercial and social sector. The 21% increase in water demand poses a challenge due to population growth and reduced water availability at collection centers. It is projected that per capita water consumption will decline to 1m3 per person by 2049. The relationship between population growth and water availability is critical, necessitating efficient resource management to ensure adequate water access in the future. Conclusion: Authorities should focus on implementing a circular economy, wastewater reuse, and improving pipeline distribution, all of which are critical components for sustainable water management in the city of Chachapoyas.

2D Fluorinated Graphene Oxide (FGO)-Polyethyleneimine (PEI) Based 3D Porous Nanoplatform for Effective Removal of Forever Toxic Chemicals, Pharmaceutical Toxins, and Waterborne Pathogens from Environmental Water Samples.

Although water is essential for life, as per the United Nations, around 2 billion people in this world lack access to safely managed drinking water services at home. Herein we report the development of a two-dimensional (2D) fluorinated graphene oxide (FGO) and polyethylenimine (PEI) based three-dimensional (3D) porous nanoplatform for the effective removal of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), pharmaceutical toxins, and waterborne pathogens from contaminated water. Experimental data show that the FGO-PEI based nanoplatform has an estimated adsorption capacity (qm) of ∼219 mg g-1 for perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and can be used for 99% removal of several short- and long-chain PFAS. A comparative PFNA capturing study using different types of nanoplatforms indicates that the qm value is in the order FGO-PEI > FGO > GO-PEI, which indicates that fluorophilic, electrostatic, and hydrophobic interactions play important roles for the removal of PFAS. Reported data show that the FGO-PEI based nanoplatform has a capability for 100% removal of moxifloxacin antibiotics with an estimated qm of ∼299 mg g-1. Furthermore, because the pore size of the nanoplatform is much smaller than the size of pathogens, it has a capability for 100% removal of Salmonella and Escherichia coli from water. Moreover, reported data show around 96% removal of PFAS, pharmaceutical toxins, and pathogens simultaneously from spiked river, lake, and tap water samples using the nanoplatform.

Policy and regulatory context for self-supplied drinking water services in two cities in Indonesia: Priorities for managing risks

Self-supply is the dominant drinking water service model for urban Indonesia. This paper examines its governance arrangements to identify risks due to the inexistence or implementation gaps of laws and regulations. The research applied a socio-ecological perspective to analyse interactions between water resources, governance, infrastructure and users and related-water security outcomes. We adopted a case study approach focused on two self-supply dominant urban areas by reviewing relevant regulations and conducting interviews with stakeholders.The findings show that water security outcomes for self-supplied services were at risk. Overarching laws exist to support groundwater preservation. However, in practice over-extraction and contamination are common, resulting in environmental risks. Governance of groundwater use and associated permits demonstrate fragmented responsibilities and lack of a coordinated institutional framework to guarantee water safety and availability. Whilst construction standards define minimum distance of wells to pollution sources, non-compliance is common, pointing to technical risks. Users are formally responsible for storage, treatment and monitoring water quality but practice varies across households. The result is a range of potential social and health risks.The study demonstrates a need for strengthened and coordinated implementation of the existing laws and regulations as well as increased acknowledgement of self-supply in policies in a concerted effort to ensure accessibility, safety and reliability of those services. We propose a modified governance framework to support further analytical and practical efforts to address risks to self-supplied services, towards improving safe and equitable water service delivery in Indonesia and elsewhere.