Draft Force Research Articles

Appraisal of Takagi-Sugeno-Kang type of adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system for draft force prediction of chisel plow implement

Required draft force of chisel plow implement during tillage operations was comprehensively apprised. Field experiments were carried out at three levels of plowing depth (PD) (10, 20 and 30 (cm)) and three levels of forward speed (FS) (2, 4 and 6 (km/h)) in a clay loam soil. An intelligent model based on soft computing technique, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), was used to integrally predict draft force. The FS and PD were chosen as input variables and the draft force was considered as output parameter in the first order Takagi-Sugeno-Kang type of ANFIS model. A comparison was also performed between results of the best developed ANFIS model and those of the well-known mathematical model suggested by American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE). To select the best model with the highest predictive ability, some statistical performance criteria (SPC) (coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), mean relative deviation modulus (MRDM), mean of absolute values of prediction residual errors (MAVPRE) and prediction error mean (PEM)) were used. The results demonstrated that the best ANFIS model with acceptable SPC values of R2=0.994, RMSE=0.722 (kN), MRDM=3.172%, MAVPRE=0.561 (kN) and PEM=−0.071% was more accurate than the ASABE model. The ANFIS modeling results also showed that the simultaneous or individual increment of FS and PD resulted in nonlinear increment of draft force. Additionally, the interaction of FS and PD on draft force was congruent. Application of physical perception obtained from developed ANFIS model results led to exposition of a new scientific window towards deep root understanding of draft force behavior. Thus, it is practically proposed to employ the ANFIS model for proper selection of tractor type for pulling chisel plow implement in the most efficient manner.

RATIONING SYSTEM IN KUBAN DURING THE POSTOCCUPATIONAL PERIOD OF 1943

In article the organization of a rationing system in the territory of Krasnodar Krai during the period after the German occupation since February, 1943 is considered. After liberation of Kuban it was necessary to adjust life and work of the big region and also in the shortest possible time to begin supply of food and industrial goods for soldiers of the Red Army. Deliveries of agricultural production laid down a heavy burden on shoulders of the population of the region. In many areas people was on the verge of hunger: crops grain and potatoes in July, 1942 were destroyed by the receding Red Army, and a new harvest wasn’t grown up even on private farmsteads yet; production of trophy food warehouses was given to Red Army men, in areas there was no draft force. For improvement of a situation, in the territory of the region the rationing system which provided distribution of products and essentials among the population was introduced. The fact of restoration of rated supply played the important stabilizing role. Along with a rationing system the Krasnodar krayispolkom made the decision on distribution of the single help in the size of 300 rub to family and also the person in need and children of the military personnel single coupons on receiving a dry ration. Special attention from the regional authorities was paid to children, expressed in the organization of free food, providing with necessary clothes and footwear. In article the measures for toughening of control from the state connected with functioning of the commercial enterprises of food, revelry of the market relations and also moonshinings are considered. The rationing system introduced in Kuban during the period after occupation allowed to stabilize a situation and supported the population during the difficult period.

WYPOSAŻENIE W SIŁĘ POCIĄGOWĄ A WYDAJNOŚĆ PRACY W POLSKIM ROLNICTWIE

The paper presents an analysis of correlations between equipment with draft force and labour productivity in agriculture. Between 1950 and 2010 live and mechanical draft force resources in the Polish agriculture increased by 365.7%, of that the mechanical one 65 times. At the same time, the number of persons working in Polish agriculture decreased by more than 37%, while the value of agricultural product in fixed prices increased: for gross output by 98%, final output – by 156%, and market output – by 280%. Labour productivity in agriculture (value of production in fixed prices per capita working in agriculture) increased, in the case of adoption as a measure of this production: gross output – by 216%, final output – by 305%, and market output – by 506%. Strongly marked positive correlation between equipment with draft force and labour productivity in agriculture has been found. The strength of this correlation weakened along with increasing equipment of agriculture with draft force.

A new hoe share design for weed control: measurements of soil movement and draught forces during operation

ABSTRACTThis research introduces a new share design (L-share) that reduces the undesired random soil movement, providing a more controlled disturbance of the upper soil layer. Purpose: The aim of this study was to evaluate draught forces and soil movements when operating the new share. Materials and Methods: Experiments were conducted in a laboratory set-up using a soil bin with a fine loamy soil texture. The soil was compacted to a bulk density of 1500 kg m−3, with a penetration index of 486 kPa and a mean water content of 10%. The cultivation depths were 30, 50 and 70 mm and the operation speeds were 0.84, 1.67 and 2.31 m s−1. Cubes were used to measure soil movement by recording the displacement from their initial positions. The soil surface and furrow profile were measured by using a 2D laser range scanner. Results: The results showed that increasing operation speed and cultivation depths generally increased draught forces and soil movement. Changing the cultivation depth from 30 to 50 mm resulted in a 63% greater longitudinal force (Fx), and 71% greater Fx when increasing the cultivation depth from 50 to 70 mm. Conclusion: The study showed that the new L-share mounted on a modified spring tine only causes minor soil movement and thereby minimising the undesirable soil movement.

Performance Study of Moldboard Plow with Two Types of Disc Harrows and Their Effect on Some Soil Properties Under Different Operating Conditions

A field experiment was conducted in two different locations at Agricultural Research Station of Garmat Ali in Basrah-Iraq. The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the effective field capacity, field efficiency, draft force, pulverization index (PI), soil bulk density and soil porosity for moldboard plow (primary tillage), mounted disk harrow and offset disk harrow (secondary tillage) under different operating speed (2.54 (S1), 3.84 (S2) and 5.77 (S3) km hr-1) in two different soil textures (silty loam soil and clay soil). The design of the experiment was complete randomized blocks design in factorial experiment. The results showed that the moldboard plow had high values of draft force, pulverization index (PI) and soil porosity and lower soil bulk density, effective field capacity and field efficiency than that of mounted disk harrow and offset disk harrow in both soils. The operating speed and the interaction between operating speed and implements tillage type had significantly affect (p < 0.05) on all the studied parameters. The silty loam soil achieved higher effective field capacity, field efficiency, soil porosity (low bulk density) and considerable pulverization of soil clods than that of clay soil. The results also showed that the optimal operation conditions of implements tillage were associated with high operating speed of 5.77 km hr-1 in silty loam soil especially with using the disks harrow.

Discrete element modelling of top soil burial using a full scale mouldboard plough under field conditions

In order to improve the grain crop yield of non-wetting sandy soils, mouldboard ploughs are again being used in Australia. To improve the effectiveness of top soil burial from ploughing the most suitable operating parameters need to be determined. The discrete element method (DEM) has the potential to model soil–mouldboard plough interactions relating to both soil movement and tillage forces. A full scale mouldboard plough was tested in the field and then simulated using DEM. The draught forces predicted by DEM were of similar magnitude to those calculated using ASABE's Agricultural Machinery Management Data (D497.7 R2015). The DEM model predicted top soil burial to a similar depth in the soil profile as was measured in the field. However, DEM predictions of lateral and forward soil movements of the buried top soil were greater than that measured in the field. The DEM predictions showed that increasing speed from 5 to 15 km h−1 gave a 40% increase in draught and a significant reduction in the depth of top soil burial. Increasing the tillage depth from 200 to 350 mm gave a 270% increase in draught but very little change in depth of burial of the top soil. The use of a skimmer was predicted to increase the draught by 4% and increase the amount of top soil buried below 100 mm depth.

A power estimator for an integrated active-passive tillage machine using the laws of classical mechanics

The integration of an active and a passive tillage tool results in several benefits. In this study, power requirement of an integrated active-passive tillage machine was investigated using a theoretical procedure. To achieve this goal, two of the models developed previously regarding the power needs of a rotary tiller and a subsoiler were modified and combined to result in an integrated estimator for prediction of the power requirements of the combined machine. Verification of the integrated estimator was carried out by comparing the estimator outputs with experimental results obtained by other researchers. According to the results of the study, the error percentage of the estimator in predicting draft force, rotational power, drawbar power, and negative draft of an integrated active-passive tillage machine in comparison with the experimental data of Weise (1993) were 16%, 47%, 6%, and 3%, respectively. Moreover, similar proportions of rotational power to total power as well as similar volumetric energy consumptions were obtained from the estimator developed herein and the experimental study of Chamen et al. (1979). Furthermore, there were promising correlations between estimated torques in this study and the study of Anpat and Raheman (2017), as well as between estimated draft forces and powers in this study and the study of Shinners et al. (1993). Finally, considering the correlations between the data obtained herein and the study of Manian and Kathirvel (2001), the estimator developed in this study predicted the values of draft force, draft power, total power and required torque of the machine fairly well. However, it overestimated the value of draft force, especially when forward speed of the machine was low. To sum up, the majority of the estimator outputs were aligned with the results obtained by other researchers.

Structural analysis of inclined type subsoiler using CAD software

Proper design of agriculture implements is necessary in order to increase their working life time and reduce the farming costs. In this study Creo and ANSYS software were used to carry out finite element analysis of inclined type subsoiler. 3D model of inclined type subsoiler was made using Creo software and static structural analysis of subsoiler was carried out using ANSYS software. The dimensions of inclined type subsoiler was selected as per local manufacturing database of subsoiler whereas loading condition defined by maximum draft force which was exerted on inclined type subsoiler in field. Results of simulation showed that maximum deformation was observed as 2.74 mm at the end of the share while maximum equivalent (von-mises) stress was 280.71MPa at the clamp. Maximum principal stress and maximum shear stress were found as 283.30MPa and 46.24MPa, respectively in subsoiler. The value of factor of safety was 1.25 and it was observed that factor of safety was very low so optimized design is required.

Model Based Analysis of Forced and Natural Convection Effects in an Electrochemical Cell

High purity copper, suitable for electrical applications, can only be obtained by electro-winning. The hallmark of this process is its self-induced natural convection through density variations of the electrolyte at both anode and cathode. In order to do this, first the full dynamic complexity of the process needs to be understood. Thus an OpenFoam®-based 2D model of the process has been created. This finite-volume multiphysics approach solves the laminar momentum and copper-ion species conservation equations, as well as local copper-ion conversion kinetics. It uses a Boussinesq approximation to simulate the species-momentum coupling, namely natural draft forces induced by variations of the spatial copper concentration within the fluid. The model shows good agreement with benchmark-cases of real-life electrochemical cells found in literature. An additional flow was imposed at the bottom of a small scale electrochemical cell in order to increase the ionic transport and thereby increase the overall performance of the cell. In a small scale electrochemical cell in strictly laminar flow, the overall performance could be increased and stratification decreased.

Model based analysis of forced and natural convection effects in an electrochemical cell

High purity copper, suitable for electrical applications, can only be obtained by electro-winning. The hallmark of this process is its self-induced natural convection through density variations of the electrolyte at both anode and cathode. In order to do this, first the full dynamic complexity of the process needs to be understood. Thus an OpenFoam®-based 2D model of the process has been created. This finite-volume multiphysics approach solves the laminar momentum and copper-ion species conservation equations, as well as local copper-ion conversion kinetics. It uses a Boussinesq approximation to simulate the species-momentum coupling, namely natural draft forces induced by variations of the spatial copper concentration within the fluid. The model shows good agreement with benchmark-cases of real-life electrochemical cells found in literature. An additional flow was imposed at the bottom of a small scale electrochemical cell in order to increase the ionic transport and thereby increase the overall performance of the cell. In a small scale electrochemical cell in strictly laminar flow, the overall performance could be increased and stratification decreased.

SIMULATION OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS OF TILLAGE UNITS

The studies were performed to improve workflow of hydraulic automatic control systems of the tillage units. Tillage quality should not deteriorate. Working bodies of tillage machines have to be moved automatically. Automated devices can be separated into two groups: direct and indirect action. It is preferable to indirect action. The article presents analysis of automatic devices used into tillage machines. Automatic control systems can be hydraulic, electro-hydraulic and pneumatic. Mechanical systems are not effective. Hydraulic systems are cheaper electric and pneumatic. They provide best of energy and quality indicators of technological process of tillage. Automatic control systems are uses draft forces, hitch position, depth of the implement, speed, acceleration and other sensors. Method of computer modeling and optimization of hydraulic automatic control systems of tillage units was developed. Results of computer modeling of hydraulic automatic control systems help to select direction of improving quality and energy indicators of technological process of tillage. Optimized combine implement depth and draft control system of arable unit allow reducing deviation the draft force of the plow; deviation of the depth of plowing is equal to or smaller than agro-technical requirements. Deviation of the draft force was decreased to 13.5 % for deviation specific soil resistance - 20 %, depth of plowing - 0.21 m, deviation of the depth of plowing - 0.019 m (9 %). Deviation of the depth of plowing may be decreased to 0.010 m (4,8 %), but deviation of the draft force shell be increased up to 16.2%. Optimized hydraulic automatic control system of garden tiller with a trapezoidal mechanism leaves smaller untreated soil area from 1.37-1.46 times.

Soil disturbance and cutting forces of four different sweeps for mechanical weeding

Sweeps are the most common tools for mechanical weeding for row-crops. However, how their soil disturbance characteristics are associated with the weeding performance has not been well documented in the literature. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the weeding performance of selected inter-row sweeps through laboratory tests. Four different sweeps, namely: Fin, Conventional, ¾-conventional, and Narrow-wing, were tested in an indoor soil bin at a working depth of 40mm and a travel speed of 8kmh−1 in a sandy loam soil. Soil disturbance characteristics (uprooting and cutting width, burial width, and burial depth), soil cutting forces (draft and vertical), and weeding rates were measured. Based on the ANOVA outputs, all these variables were significantly affected by the treatments at p<0.05, except for the draft force. The ¾-conventional and Conventional sweeps had higher vertical forces than the other sweeps. The Conventional and ¾-conventional sweeps produced an uprooting and cutting width of approximately 260mm, and the Fin and Narrow-wing sweeps resulted in an approximately 7.2% larger uprooting and cutting width. The Fin sweep had the smallest burial width (zero), while the ¾-conventional sweep had the largest burial width (308mm). This trend was also observed for the burial depth. In general, the burial depth decreased exponentially from the centre of the sweep path over the lateral distance. The Fin and ¾-conventional sweeps had over 70% weed kill and these two sweeps are recommended as the best choices for row-crop weed control.

Evaluation of Inter-Row Sweeps with Different Working Widths

Abstract. Little information is available on the performance of inter-row sweeps. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of inter-row sweeps for mechanical weed control. Sweeps with different working widths (153, 280, and 330 mm) were tested at different working speeds (0.70, 1.53, and 2.22 m s-1) and a constant working depth (50 mm) in an indoor soil bin with a sandy loam soil. Measurements included soil disturbance characteristics: distance of soil throw (L), width of disturbed soil (W), mass of soil throw (M), height of soil ridge (H), and draft force (Fd). Results showed that L increased linearly with the working speed, but L was not affected by the working width of the sweeps. In contrast, W was slightly affected by the speed, but it was significantly increased if a wider sweep was used. Effects of working speed on M and H depended on the sweep width, and the smallest sweep traveling at 2.22 m s-1 resulted in the highest M and H. Draft force was higher for a wider sweep and a higher working speed. Considering the potential weeding efficiency (defined as the ratio of W and Fd), the width of sweep would not make any differences, and a lower working speed would result in better performance. Keywords: Draft force, Inter-row, Soil disturbance, Speed, Sweep, Weeding.

Development and Validation of a Tractor Drawbar Force Measurement and Data Acquisition System (DAQ)

Abstract. Matching agricultural tractors to implements towed by the drawbar is one of the important aspects of machinery management for ensuring optimum performance and fuel cost savings. A field deployable tractor draft force measurement and data acquisition system was developed and evaluated as part of this research project. A drawbar instrumented to measure draft force in field operating conditions was developed and statically calibrated. The drawbar was calibrated by applying loads from 4.45 to 134 kN using a hydraulic cylinder connected to a 444.8 kN load cell. Testing was conducted with the drawbar installed on a tractor on a concrete track. The Nebraska Tractor Test Laboratory (NTTL) load car was used for applying draft loads to evaluate the instrumented drawbar. The track test consisted of seven loads corresponding to maximum power in seven gears. The draft forces as measured by the drawbar were compared to the draft measurements recorded by the load car. The error between draft force measurements of the instrumented drawbar and the load car measurements ranged from 0.21 kN (0.27%) to 0.99 kN (2.88%).There were no statistically significant differences between drawbar and load car measurements confirming that the drawbar force measurement and data acquisition (DAQ) system developed as part of this research can be used for field use. Keywords: Data acquisition, Draft load, Drawbar, LabVIEW, Strain gages, Tractor.

Instrumented Soil Bin for Testing Soil-Engaging Tools

Abstract. An indoor soil bin was developed in this study for testing soil-engaging tools. The design criteria included that the soil bin had to be compact, well controlled in its operational parameters, instrumented to measure soil cutting forces, and be safe to operate. The test tool could travel at any specific speed, up to 8 km h-1. A compact dynamometer was designed for the soil bin for measuring soil cutting forces in three directions. The calibration results of the dynamometer showed a linear relationship between the loads and the output voltages, with coefficients of determination of 0.99. The cross sensitivity between the directions was from 0.31% to 4.7%. The soil bin and the dynamometer were tested using a disc operated at three values of tilt angle of 0°, 10°, and 20°. The test results showed that the soil bin allowed precise control of the tool travel speed and working depth in the designed ranges. Forces of the disc had an increase in vertical and lateral forces, and decrease in draft force, with the increase in tilt angle. These trends are in line with other studies in the literature. The results proved the full-functioning status of the soil bin and the dynamometer. Keywords: Calibration, Design, Disc, Dynamometer, Soil bin, Test, Tilt angle.

Optimization of the Wing Parameters for a Winged Subsoiler

ABSTRACT. The wing parameters of a subsoiler, such as the location and angle of the wings, have an important impact on the operating performance of the winged subsoilers. To study the comprehensive effect of wing parameters and to determine the optimal parameters of a winged subsoiler, a field experiment was conducted. The experimental factors were the mounting height (50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mm), sweep angle(5°, 15°, 25°, 35°, and 45°) and mounting angle(5°, 15°, 25°, 35°, and 45°). The draft force of the subsoiler and the disturbed soil area were measured; these two variables defined the Specific Draft Force (SDF). The SDF was used as the response index to evaluate the performance of the winged subsoiler. The mathematical model of regression between experimental factors and SDF was established. The results showed that the normal probability distribution of the predicted and measured values of SDF tended to be linear, indicating that the credibility of the results of the analysis was higher. The mounting height, mounting angle, and sweep angle had interactive effects on SDF. The order of significance was mounting height, mounting angle, and sweep angle. The experimental parameters were optimized by Design-Expert 8.0 software: 124 mm for the mounting height, 45° for the mounting angle, and 45° for the sweep angle. This optimal combination of parameters resulted in a SDF of 69.9 kN/m2. The winged subsoiler designed using the optimization results showed that the average value of SDF was 78.73 kN/m2: significantly lower than SDF (79.34-95.33 kN/m2) before optimization. Keywords: Mounting angle, Mounting height, Optimization, Parameter, Specific Draft Force (SDF), Subsoiler, Sweep angle, Wing.

Stress Analysis of Crossbar of Moldboard Plough Pulled by Massey Ferguson 285 and 299 Tractors

Frequent failures of mechanical elements in machines and equipment due to exerted loads reveal the importance of researches and studies in this regard to optimize or redesign the parts. Practically, crossbar’s pins in moldboard plough are frequently failed. So, stress analysis of that was conducted in this study by finite element method. After drawing the three-dimensional model in Solid Works Software and transfer it to ANSYS Software, the constraints, boundary conditions and loads were applied on the model. Then the static analyses were done for the model. To estimate the exerted forces on the crossbar, the draft forces of Massey Ferguson 285 and 299 tractors were considered. The results of static analysis showed that the maximum static stresses based on von Mises criteria occur at the junction between the left and right pins with crossbar. The stress values based on Massey Ferguson 285 Tractor were 126 and 83.7 MPa, respectively, and based on Massey Ferguson 299 Tractor were 136 and 90.6 MPa, respectively. The obtained safety factors for the left and right pins were obtained as 1.57 and 2.36, respectively, based on the maximum draft of Massey Ferguson 285 Tractor and 1.45 and 2.18, respectively, based on the maximum draft of Massey Ferguson 299 Tractor. These results show the higher probability of failure at the left pin junction.

Discrete element modelling of tillage forces and soil movement of a one-third scale mouldboard plough

In Australia there is renewed interest in mouldboard ploughing to improve crop yields of non-wetting sandy soils. Burying the top layer of non-wetting soil and bringing to the surface soil that has better water holding capacity is beneficial for plant growth. To improve the effectiveness of the ploughing it is essential to: (1) optimise the tillage forces and (2) understand the soil inversion and burial process. Recent studies show that Discrete Element Modelling (DEM) has the potential to predict both tillage forces and soil movement of tillage implements. In this study a one-third scale mouldboard plough was constructed and tested in a soil bin where draught force, vertical force and soil movement were measured. A comparison of the measured and simulated draught and downward vertical forces showed a close agreement. A procedure was developed to compare soil movement, percentage burial of top soil and forward soil movement of the soil bin tests and the DEM simulations. The results showed similar trends and patterns for both the percentage of the top soil buried to various tillage depths and the forward soil movement. Due to the larger than actual spherical particles used in the simulation the forward soil movement was greater for DEM. The DEM showed some particles moving below the tillage depth. This shows that further model development is needed with work recommended to look at using both clump particle shapes and smaller particle sizes to improve soil movement predictions.

Effect of soil, machine, and working state parameters on the required draft force of a subsoiler using a theoretical draft-calculating model

One of the most important soil degradation agents in agriculture is compaction. To rehabilitate compacted fields, farmers usually use subsoilers to break compacted layers. Moreover, the required draft force of a subsoiler dictates the amount of energy needed to operate it. Therefore, measurement, calculation or prediction of the draft force of this machine is vital for designing an efficient subsoiler. In the present study, an analytical model was developed to calculate the subsoiler draft force. To verify the model developed herein, model outputs regarding the draft force of a subsoiler were compared with corresponding results from the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) standard, as well as the results of literature studies. Moreover, the output of the model was compared with the measured draft force of subsoiling a silty clay loam soil. Furthermore, the results obtained regarding the quantitative effect of model inputs on the draft force of a subsoiler were checked from the viewpoint of compatibility with the expected trends or observed results in other studies. The data obtained from the developed model were compatible with those of the ASAE standard. Moreover, the draft force of a single-shank subsoiler was almost 10 kN, which is approximately 14% higher than the result obtained by the model (8.73 kN). Therefore, the model developed herein can be used to calculate the subsoiler draft force with reasonable accuracy. Of the machine parameters, subsoiler wingspan had an adverse effect on the specific draft of this machine. Moreover, for the range of working depths between 30 and 50cm, the minimum values of specific draft took place.

Performance of a driven hitch-cart for draft animal power under different power take-off torque and ballast levels condition

The performance of a two-wheel driven hitch-cart designed for draft animal power has been assessed. The cart fits a three-point linkage system and a ground-driven power take-off (PTO). Conventional pneumatic tires and metallic wheels have been tested in dedicated draft trials with increasing torque applied to PTO (7.0 to 70 Nm) at two ballast levels (100 and 200 kg). Draft force varies from a minimum of about 760 N (pneumatic tires and the lowest ballast), up to about 4480 N (metallic wheels and the highest ballast), with a linear increase as a function of the PTO applied torque. In term of global efficiency the better performances was achieved in different conditions. The metallic wheels deliver greater power to the PTO than pneumatic tires. Furthermore, they had global efficiencies higher than pneumatic for high power requirements, while the pneumatics perform better when the required power is low. Slippage rises as a function of increasing torque and decreasing ballast, with metallic wheels allowing delivery of greater PTO torque at the same slippage extent. The performances of the cart are consistent with the use of implements designed for small tractors.