Domestic Turkeys Research Articles

A sixteenth-century turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) from Puerto Real, Hispaniola

A single turkey (Meleagris spp.) coracoid was identified from Puerto Real, a Spanish colonial town founded in 1503 on the north coast of Hispaniola and destroyed in 1579. Turkeys are not indigenous to Hispaniola, but wild turkeys were widespread in lands bordering the northern Gulf of Mexico and domestic turkeys were common in parts of Mexico. A wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) at Puerto Real might be indirect evidence that wild turkeys were sent to Europe in the early to mid-1500s from the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. If the Puerto Real individual is a domestic South Mexican turkey (Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo), however, this would confirm that domestic turkeys were present in the Caribbean archipelago shortly after 1492. Ancient mitochondrial DNA D-loop analysis confirmed the identification of Meleagris gallopavo, with a haplotype most consistent with a Mesoamerican origin. Isotopic evidence suggested a reliance on C4 plants, likely maize (Zea mays), rather than a typical wild turkey diet high in C3 plants. Together, the biomolecular evidence suggests this turkey traces its lineage to Mesoamerica, and is part of the larger post-Columbian merger of diverse cultural traditions.

Turkeys on the fringe: Variable husbandry in “marginal” areas of the prehistoric American Southwest

Previous research reporting stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope values of prehistoric turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) remains from the American Southwest indicates that these birds were husbanded in consistent ways: the majority of samples suggest a diet dominated by maize, a domesticate that uses the C4 photosynthetic pathway. However, most of these studies have focused on turkey remains from locations where maize would likely have been readily available. Here we present isotope and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype data from turkey remains from the relatively high-elevation site of Tijeras Pueblo (LA 581), a location where maize production may have been marginal. The Tijeras Pueblo turkeys display a unique carbon isotope pattern in both bone collagen and bone apatite, with half the samples indicating a predominately C3 diet (a signature characteristic of modern wild turkeys) and the other half predominately C4, even though the majority of samples belong to the Southwestern domestic turkey mtDNA lineage identified by Speller et al. (2010). Comparative collagen samples from the Albuquerque Basin and the Gallina region do not follow this pattern. Apatite-collagen δ13C spacing in the Tijeras turkeys suggests these birds were acquiring carbohydrates and protein from a mixture of C3- and C4-based resources. We propose that the C3 Tijeras turkeys were free-ranged, and that the presence of two distinct turkey husbandry regimes at Tijeras Pueblo may reflect Tijeras' geographic location on a cultural boundary between the Plains and Pueblo regions.

Identifying the sex of archaeological turkey remains using ancient DNA techniques

Accurate sex identification of archaeological turkey remains is important for deciphering hunting and husbandry practices in pre-contact North America, particularly in the Southwest United States and Mesoamerica where domestic turkeys were raised. Although the sexual dimorphism of turkeys means that relatively complete elements can be distinguished using osteometric approaches, sexing fragmentary or juvenile remains is challenging. Here, we propose a simple and highly-sensitive co-amplification approach which targets highly-repetitive DNA (hrDNA) sequences on the turkey W chromosome. This technique simultaneously co-amplifies both hrDNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments: the amplification of the W chromosome identifies the heterogametic sex (females), while the mtDNA fragment acts as an internal positive control to monitor for false negative results. To demonstrate the sensitivity and accuracy of this technique, we applied it to 20 modern turkeys and 117 archaeological turkey bones from 25 sites (ca. AD700–1700), including 32 samples from Sand Canyon Pueblo (AD1250–1300). We amplified ancient DNA from 86% of the ancient remains, demonstrating the sensitivity of the technique for targeting nuclear DNA. The correspondence between morphological size and the genetic sex identification for 100% of the complete skeletal elements demonstrates the accuracy and robusticity of this approach. Although within the larger regional assemblage, more males than females were identified (61% vs 39%), the site-specific analysis at Sand Canyon Pueblo suggests that adult male and female turkeys were present in a relatively even ratio.

Reconstructing animal husbandry: Trauma in Meleagris gallopavo (domestic turkey) ulnae from the American Southwest (c. 900–1678 CE)

Palaeopathological and metrical analyses of faunal remains have the potential to illuminate features of past husbandry practices including demography, stocking, injury and care, housing, transport and movement, diet, and breeding. This paper presents the results of metrical and palaeopathological analyses of turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) remains from nine assemblages excavated from sites across the American Southwest.Metrical data demonstrate variation in the size and overall morphology of turkeys across these sites and support the idea that meat production was not the sole purpose for turkey husbandry. The most frequently-occurring type of lesion in any skeletal element was trauma (physical injury), and 36% of these pathologies were present in ulnae. Lesions in ulnae at five sites provide evidence for the possibility that feathers were harvested from live turkeys at some sites.

Changes in leg health, skin, and plumage condition in domestic male turkeys of varying body weights

Injurious pecking in turkeys is a serious welfare and economic concern in commercial production. Yet, very little is known about the development of this behaviour, and whether it relates to physical characteristics of the turkey. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships among group variation in body weight, snood length, leg health, and skin and plumage damage over time in adult male turkeys. At 11 weeks of age, 50 male turkeys were allocated to one of three treatments based on body weight: HEAVY (8.22±0.11kg), AVERAGE (7.54±0.11kg), or LIGHT (7.14±0.11kg; mean±standard error of the mean (SEM)). Turkeys were housed in groups of 8–10 with two replicates per treatment. They were weighed and scored weekly for plumage and skin condition (separate scores for head, neck, back, wings, and tail) and leg health (gait, footpad health and cleanliness, and number and severity of deviated toes). The data were divided into three time periods: 11–13, 14–17, and 18–21 weeks of age, and analyzed with a mixed model procedure and principal components analysis in SAS. With time, gaits worsened (Live Gait: F2,65=14.72, P<0.0001, Video Gait: F2,43=2.00, P=0.15) and turkeys had more deviated toes (F2,71=177.10, P<0.0001) and a greater severity of toe deviations (F2,112=75.15, P<0.0001) across all weight treatments. All turkeys showed worse footpad cleanliness over time (F2,162=12.01, P<0.0001), which might have contributed to the increase in footpad health problems (F2,69=15.58, P<0.0001). Pecking injuries to the head (F1,66=17.71, P<0.0001) and neck (F1,46=4.40, P=0.042) became more prevalent after the first period, whereas pecking injuries to the back (t48=−4.37, P<0.0001) increased in the final period. Damage to the tails of these turkeys also increased significantly in the final period (t51=−6.80, P<0.0001). Snood length did not vary between treatments and showed no association to the head and neck condition of these turkeys. As turkeys aged, signs of injurious pecking increased while leg health deteriorated. However, group variation in early body weights was not predictive of leg health, snood length, or being the recipient of skin and plumage damage later in life.

Targeted capture enrichment and sequencing identifies extensive nucleotide variation in the turkey MHC-B.

Variation in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is increasingly associated with disease susceptibility and resistance in avian species of agricultural importance. This variation includes sequence polymorphisms but also structural differences (gene rearrangement) and copy number variation (CNV). The MHC has now been described for multiple galliform species including the best defined assemblies of the chicken (Gallus gallus) and domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Using this sequence resource, this study applied high-throughput sequencing to investigate MHC variation in turkeys of North America (NA turkeys). An MHC-specific SureSelect (Agilent) capture array was developed, and libraries were created for 14 turkeys representing domestic (commercial bred), heritage breed, and wild turkeys. In addition, a representative of the Ocellated turkey (M. ocellata) and chicken (G. gallus) was included to test cross-species applicability of the capture array allowing for identification of new species-specific polymorphisms. Libraries were hybridized to ∼12 K cRNA baits and the resulting pools were sequenced. On average, 98% of processed reads mapped to the turkey whole genome sequence and 53% to the MHC target. In addition to the MHC, capture hybridization recovered sequences corresponding to other MHC regions. Sequence alignment and de novo assembly indicated the presence of several additional BG genes in the turkey with evidence for CNV. Variant detection identified an average of 2245 polymorphisms per individual for the NA turkeys, 3012 for the Ocellated turkey, and 462 variants in the chicken (RJF-256). This study provides an extensive sequence resource for examining MHC variation and its relation to health of this agriculturally important group of birds.

The Uncertain Origins of Mesoamerican Turkey Domestication

The turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is the only domesticated vertebrate to originate from North America. Accurate reconstructions of the timing, location, and process of its domestication are thus critical for understanding the domestication process in the ancient Americas. A substantial amount of recent research has been devoted to understanding turkey domestication in the American Southwest, but comparatively little research has been conducted on the subject in Mesoamerica, despite the fact that all modern domestic turkeys descend from birds originally domesticated in Mexico during pre-colonial times. To address this disparity, we have conducted a review of the available literature on early turkeys in the archaeological record of Mesoamerica. We evaluate the evidence in terms of its accuracy and use this evaluation as a stepping off point for suggesting potential avenues of future research. Although the lack of available data from Mesoamerica currently precludes detailed cross-cultural comparisons, we briefly compare the origins and intensification of turkey rearing in Mesoamerica with the American Southwest to generate more dialogue among researchers independently studying the topic in these two distinct but interconnected cultural regions.

DIAGNOSING LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASE VIRUS IN LIVE WILD TURKEYS (MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO) USING WHOLE BLOOD.

Lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV) is a retrovirus that infects wild and domestic turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo ). The first cases of LPDV in the United States were diagnosed in 2009, and subsequent surveillance has revealed the virus to be widespread in wild turkey populations throughout the eastern half of the country. More research is needed to determine whether LPDV is having a negative effect on turkey populations, but progress has been impeded by the lack of a simple method for diagnosing the virus in living birds. Infected animals may appear asymptomatic, and diagnostics currently rely on tissue or bone marrow, which can be difficult to obtain. This study investigated the reliability of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect LPDV in whole blood, compared with previous methods using buffy coat (concentrated white blood cells) and bone marrow. Paired samples of whole blood and buffy coat were collected from 137 live turkeys and paired samples of whole blood and bone marrow were collected from 32 turkeys postmortem. Compared with buffy coat, whole blood had 97% sensitivity and 100% specificity. When compared with bone marrow, whole blood had 100% sensitivity and 89% specificity. Both comparisons had a high degree of agreement using Cohen's kappa statistic. Based on these results, PCR of whole blood provides detection of LPDV in living birds that is on par with both buffy coat and bone marrow.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N8 Clade 2.3.4.4 Virus: Equivocal Pathogenicity and Implications for Surveillance Following Natural Infection in Breeder Ducks in the United Kingdom.

Since early 2014, several outbreaks involving novel reassortant highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N8) viruses have been detected in poultry and wild bird species in Asia, Europe and North America. These viruses have been detected in apparently healthy and dead wild migratory birds, as well as in domestic chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. In this study, we describe the pathology of an outbreak of H5N8 HPAIV in breeder ducks in the UK. A holding with approximately 6000 breeder ducks, aged approximately 60 weeks, showed a gradual reduction in egg production and increased mortality over a 7-day period. Post-mortem examination revealed frequent fibrinous peritonitis, with severely haemorrhagic ovarian follicles and occasional splenic and pancreatic necrosis and high incidence of mycotic granulomas in the air sacs and lung. Low-to-moderate levels of HPAI H5N8 virus were detected mainly in respiratory and digestive tract, with minor involvement of other organs. Although histopathological examination confirmed the gross pathology findings, intralesional viral antigen detection by immunohistochemistry was not observed. Immunolabelled cells were rarely only present in inflamed air sacs and serosa, usually superficial to granulomatous inflammation. Abundant bacterial microcolonies were observed in haemorrhagic ovaries and oviduct. The limited viral tissue distribution and presence of inter-current fungal and bacterial infections suggest a minor role for HPAIV H5N8 in clinical disease in layer ducks.

Aflatoxicosis: Lessons from Toxicity and Responses to Aflatoxin B1 in Poultry

This review is a comprehensive introduction to the effects of poultry exposure to the toxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The relationship between AFB1 sensitivity and metabolism, major direct and indirect effects of AFB1, recent studies of gene expression and transcriptome responses to exposure, and mitigation strategies to reduce toxicity are discussed. Exposure to AFB1 primarily occurs by consumption of contaminated corn, grain or other feed components. Low levels of residual AFB1 in poultry feeds can cause reduction in growth, feed conversion, egg production, and compromised immune functions, resulting in significant economic costs to producers. Thus, AFB1 acts as a “force multiplier” synergizing the adverse effects of microbial pathogens and other agents, and factors detrimental to poultry health. Domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are one of the most sensitive animals known to AFB1 due, in large part, to a combination of efficient hepatic bioactivation by cytochromes P450 1A5 and 3A37, and deficient hepatic glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-mediated detoxification. Because of their sensitivity, turkeys are a good model to investigate chemopreventive treatments and feed additives for their ability to reduce AFB1 toxicity. Transcriptome analysis (RNA-seq) of turkey poults (liver and spleen) has identified AFB1-induced gene expression changes in pathways of apoptosis, carcinogenesis, lipid regulation, antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity and antigen presentation. Current research focuses on further identifying the molecular mechanisms underlying AFB1 toxicity with the goal of reducing aflatoxicosis and improving poultry health.

Unique genomic organization of a novel Avipoxvirus detected in turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

Avipoxviruses are emerging pathogens affecting over 200 bird species worldwide. Genetic characterization of avipoxviruses is performed by analysis of genomic regions encoding the 4b and DNA polymerase. Whole genome sequence data are limited to a few avipoxvirus isolates. Based on phylogenetic analysis three major genetic clades are distinguished. In this study we report a novel avipoxvirus strain causing skin lesions in domestic turkey. The virus was identified in Hungary during 2011 in a flock of turkey vaccinated against avipoxvirus infection. The genome of the isolated strain, TKPV-HU1124/2011, was uniquely short (∼188.5kbp) and was predicted to encode reduced number of proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of the genes encoding the 4b and DNA polymerase separated TKPV-HU1124/2011 from other turkey origin avipoxviruses and classified it into a new genetic clade. This study permits new insight into the genetic and genomic heterogeneity of avipoxviruses and pinpoints the importance of strain diversity in vaccine efficacy.

Use of FTA technology for detection of Trichomonas gallinae

Trichomonas gallinae is the causative agent for avian trichomonosis, which can have important population implications for domestic turkeys, columbids, raptors, and various passeriformes. Continued population surveillance and genotype distribution is needed to elucidate transmission dynamics and prevalence of T. gallinae among free-ranging birds. However, obtaining live cultures for laboratory testing is logistically challenging, limiting the ability to perform surveillance and genotype investigations. In this study, we evaluated non-indicating FTA Elute cards as a potential sampling storage substrate for downstream use in molecular identification of two T. gallinae isolates. Isolate concentrations of 10 or 100 trichomonads/40μl were inoculated onto a FTA Elute card in triplicate. At each time point (48h, 2 weeks, and 3 weeks), DNA elution procedures were performed on the cards, and the eluents were analyzed by conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using trichomonad-specific primers. Three PCR-positive samples were detected at 48h from one isolate; however, all eluents from cards held for 2 and 3 weeks were PCR-negative. Our results suggest that use of FTA Elute cards for nucleic acid storage can lead to low PCR sensitivity of T. gallinae in low concentrations, such as those found in non-clinical birds; however, more research is needed to fully evaluate the efficacy of FTA Elute cards as a diagnostic tool for T. gallinae.

Molecular Surveillance for Lymphoproliferative Disease Virus in Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from the Eastern United States.

Lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV) is a poorly understood, oncogenic avian retrovirus of domestic turkeys that has historically been restricted to Europe and Israel. However, a recent study reported LPDV in multiple wild turkey diagnostic cases from throughout the eastern United States of America (USA). To better understand the distribution of LPDV in the eastern USA, we surveyed 1,164 reportedly asymptomatic hunter-harvested wild turkeys from 17 states for the presence of LPDV proviral DNA by PCR. In total, 564/1,164 (47%) turkeys were positive for LPDV. Wild turkeys from each state had a relatively high prevalence of LPDV, although statewide prevalence varied from 26 to 83%. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two major clades of LPDV in the USA, although one was at a low frequency suggesting restricted transmission, as well as significant clustering by state of isolation. To determine the best tissue to target for diagnostic purposes, liver, spleen, and bone marrow were tested from a subset of 15 hunter-harvested wild turkeys and 20 wild turkey diagnostic cases. Overall, bone marrow provided the highest level of detection for both hunter-harvested turkeys and diagnostic cases. The sensitivity of LPDV detection between tissues was not significantly different for diagnostic cases, but was for hunter-harvested birds. These results indicate that LPDV infection is common and widespread in wild turkey populations throughout the eastern USA, even without overt signs of disease.

Serologic survey of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) and evidence of exposure to avian encephalomyelitis virus in Georgia and Florida, USA.

Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are susceptible to many of the same diseases as domestic turkeys. Before 2005, most Wild Turkeys in southern Georgia, US, had little or no exposure to commercial poultry operations. As part of a pathogen survey examining the effects of commercial poultry on Wild Turkeys, samples were collected from Wild Turkeys from March 2005 through May 2008. The turkeys were collected from 13 counties in southern Georgia and Madison County, Florida, and tested for antibodies to various pathogens of poultry. Three (13%) of the turkeys were positive for antibodies to Salmonella. Thirteen turkeys (54%) were positive for Newcastle disease virus antibodies, and 15 turkeys (63%) were positive for antibodies to reticuloendotheliosis virus. One turkey (4%) from Madison County was positive for avian encephalomyelitis virus antibodies.

Host specificity of turkey and chicken Eimeria: Controlled cross-transmission studies and a phylogenetic view

Protozoan parasites of the Eimeria genus have undergone extensive speciation and are now represented by a myriad of species that are specialised to different hosts. These species are highly host-specific and usually parasitise single host species, with only few reported exceptions. Doubts regarding the strict host specificity were frequent in the original literature describing coccidia parasitising domestic turkeys. The availability of pure characterised lines of turkey and chicken Eimeria species along with the recently developed quantitative PCR identification of these species allowed to investigate the issue of host specificity using well-controlled cross-transmission experiments. Seven species of gallinaceous birds (Gallus gallus, Meleagris gallopavo, Alectoris rufa, Perdix perdix, Phasianus colchicus, Numida meleagris and Colinus virginianus) were inoculated with six species and strains of turkey Eimeria and six species of chicken coccidia and production of oocysts was monitored. Turkey Eimeria species E. dispersa, E. innocua and E. meleagridis could complete their development in the hosts from different genera or even different families. Comparison of phylogenetic positions of these Eimeria species according to 18S rDNA and COI showed that the phylogeny cannot explain the observed patterns of host specificity. These findings suggest that the adaptation of Eimeria parasites to foreign hosts is possible and might play a significant role in the evolution and diversification of this genus.

Modulation of the spleen transcriptome in domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in response to aflatoxin B1 and probiotics.

Poultry are highly susceptible to the immunotoxic effects of the food-borne mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Exposure impairs cell-mediated and humoral immunity, limits vaccine efficacy, and increases the incidence of costly secondary infections. We investigated the molecular mechanisms of AFB1 immunotoxicity and the ability of a Lactobacillus-based probiotic to protect against aflatoxicosis in the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). The spleen transcriptome was examined by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of 12 individuals representing four treatment groups. Sequences (6.9Gb) were de novo assembled to produce over 270,000 predicted transcripts and transcript fragments. Differential expression analysis identified 982 transcripts with statistical significance in at least one comparison between treatment groups. Transcripts with known immune functions comprised 27.6% of significant expression changes in the AFB1-exposed group. Short exposure to AFB1 suppressed innate immune transcripts, especially from antimicrobial genes, but increased the expression of transcripts from E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase CBL-B and multiple interleukin-2 response genes. Up-regulation of transcripts from lymphotactin, granzyme A, and perforin 1 could indicate either increased cytotoxic potential or activation-induced cell death in the spleen during aflatoxicosis. Supplementation with probiotics was found to ameliorate AFB1-induced expression changes for multiple transcripts from antimicrobial and IL-2-response genes. However, probiotics had an overall suppressive effect on immune-related transcripts.

Genome-wide candidate regions for selective sweeps revealed through massive parallel sequencing of DNA across ten turkey populations.

BackgroundThe domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an important agricultural species that is largely used as a meat-type bird. Characterizing genetic variation in populations of domesticated species and associating these variation patterns with the evolution, domestication, and selective breeding is critical for understanding the dynamics of genomic change in these species. Intense selective breeding and population bottlenecks are expected to leave signatures in the genome of domesticated species, such as unusually low nucleotide diversity or the presence of exceptionally extended haplotype homozygosity. These patterns of variation in selected populations are highly useful to not only understand the consequences of selective breeding and population dynamics, but also to provide insights into biological mechanisms that may affect physiological processes important to bring changes in phenotype of interest.ResultsWe observed 54 genomic regions in heritage and commercial turkey populations on 14 different chromosomes that showed statistically significant (P < 0.05) reduction in genomic variation indicating candidate selective sweeps. Areas with evidence of selective sweeps varied from 1.5 Mb to 13.8 Mb in length. Out of these 54 sweeps, 23 overlapped at least partially between two or more populations. Overlapping sweeps were found on 13 different chromosomes. The remaining 31 sweeps were population-specific and were observed on 12 different chromosomes, with 26 of these regions present only in commercial populations. Genes that are known to affect growth were enriched in the sweep regions.ConclusionThe turkey genome showed large sweep regions. The relatively high number of sweep regions in commercial turkey populations compared to heritage varieties and the enrichment of genes important to growth in these regions, suggest that these sweeps are the result of intense selection in these commercial lines, moving specific haplotypes towards fixation.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12863-014-0117-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Complete mitochondrial genome sequences from five Eimeria species (Apicomplexa; Coccidia; Eimeriidae) infecting domestic turkeys.

BackgroundClinical and subclinical coccidiosis is cosmopolitan and inflicts significant losses to the poultry industry globally. Seven named Eimeria species are responsible for coccidiosis in turkeys: Eimeria dispersa; Eimeria meleagrimitis; Eimeria gallopavonis; Eimeria meleagridis; Eimeria adenoeides; Eimeria innocua; and, Eimeria subrotunda. Although attempts have been made to characterize these parasites molecularly at the nuclear 18S rDNA and ITS loci, the maternally-derived and mitotically replicating mitochondrial genome may be more suited for species level molecular work; however, only limited sequence data are available for Eimeria spp. infecting turkeys. The purpose of this study was to sequence and annotate the complete mitochondrial genomes from 5 Eimeria species that commonly infect the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo).MethodsSix single-oocyst derived cultures of five Eimeria species infecting turkeys were PCR-amplified and sequenced completely prior to detailed annotation. Resulting sequences were aligned and used in phylogenetic analyses (BI, ML, and MP) that included complete mitochondrial genomes from 16 Eimeria species or concatenated CDS sequences from each genome.ResultsComplete mitochondrial genome sequences were obtained for Eimeria adenoeides Guelph, 6211 bp; Eimeria dispersa Briston, 6238 bp; Eimeria meleagridis USAR97-01, 6212 bp; Eimeria meleagrimitis USMN08-01, 6165 bp; Eimeria gallopavonis Weybridge, 6215 bp; and Eimeria gallopavonis USKS06-01, 6215 bp). The order, orientation and CDS lengths of the three protein coding genes (COI, COIII and CytB) as well as rDNA fragments encoding ribosomal large and small subunit rRNA were conserved among all sequences. Pairwise sequence identities between species ranged from 88.1% to 98.2%; sequence variability was concentrated within CDS or between rDNA fragments (where indels were common). No phylogenetic reconstruction supported monophyly of Eimeria species infecting turkeys; Eimeria dispersa may have arisen via host switching from another avian host. Phylogenetic analyses suggest E. necatrix and E. tenella are related distantly to other Eimeria of chickens.ConclusionsMitochondrial genomes of Eimeria species sequenced to date are highly conserved with regard to gene content and structure. Nonetheless, complete mitochondrial genome sequences and, particularly the three CDS, possess sufficient sequence variability for differentiating Eimeria species of poultry. The mitochondrial genome sequences are highly suited for molecular diagnostics and phylogenetics of coccidia and, potentially, genetic markers for molecular epidemiology.

Identification of duck, partridge, pheasant, quail, chicken and turkey meats by species-specific PCR assays to assess the authenticity of traditional game meat Alheira sausages

Abstract Game meat Alheira ( Alheira de caca ) sausage is a traditional fermented product typical from the Northeast region of Portugal, having bread and meats (including game) as main ingredients. It is a particularly appreciated product by consumers that commands higher prices, especially in comparison with the common Alheira produced with pork and poultry meats. Following our previous work in which several mammalian game meat species were successfully identified in game meat Alheira sausages for authentication purposes, the present work aimed at identifying game bird's species for the overall assessment of labelling compliance. For that purpose, several species-specific PCR assays targeting mitochondrial DNA for the detection of game and domestic bird's meat, namely duck, partridge, pheasant, quail, chicken and turkey were developed, optimised and applied to commercial samples of game meat Alheira for their authentication. The assays revealed a high specificity and sensitivity to detect the addition of all evaluated species down to a level of 0.01% (w/w). PCR results indicated the existence of several inconsistencies with the labelled information, namely the absence of declared game species (duck, partridge and pheasant) and the presence of undeclared poultry meat, pointing out to adulterations owing to substitution of game by domestic meat species. Since this is considered a high-valued traditional product that should be valorised and protected, this work puts in evidence the need for inspection programs to enforce regulation.

Response of the hepatic transcriptome to aflatoxin B1 in domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo).

Dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is detrimental to avian health and leads to major economic losses for the poultry industry. AFB1 is especially hepatotoxic in domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), since these birds are unable to detoxify AFB1 by glutathione-conjugation. The impacts of AFB1 on the turkey hepatic transcriptome and the potential protection from pretreatment with a Lactobacillus-based probiotic mixture were investigated through RNA-sequencing. Animals were divided into four treatment groups and RNA was subsequently recovered from liver samples. Four pooled RNA-seq libraries were sequenced to produce over 322 M reads totaling 13.8 Gb of sequence. Approximately 170,000 predicted transcripts were de novo assembled, of which 803 had significant differential expression in at least one pair-wise comparison between treatment groups. Functional analysis linked many of the transcripts significantly affected by AFB1 exposure to cancer, apoptosis, the cell cycle or lipid regulation. Most notable were transcripts from the genes encoding E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase Mdm2, osteopontin, S-adenosylmethionine synthase isoform type-2, and lipoprotein lipase. Expression was modulated by the probiotics, but treatment did not completely mitigate the effects of AFB1. Genes identified through transcriptome analysis provide candidates for further study of AFB1 toxicity and targets for efforts to improve the health of domestic turkeys exposed to AFB1.