Domain Wall Nucleation Research Articles

Magnetic anisotropy and high-frequency property of flexible FeCoTa films obliquely deposited on a wrinkled topography

We investigated the magnetic anisotropy and the high-frequency property of flexible Fe60Co26Ta14 (FeCoTa) thin films obtained by oblique sputtering onto a wrinkled surface. The sinuously wrinkled topography is produced by growing Ta layer on a pre-strained polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) membrane. Due to the enhanced effect of shadowing, the oblique deposition of FeCoTa layer gives rise to a shift of wrinkle peak towards the incident atomic flux. With increasing the PDMS pre-strain or increasing the oblique sputtering angle, both the uniaxial magnetic anisotropy and the ferromagnetic resonance frequency of FeCoTa films are enhanced, but the initial permeability decreases. The magnetization reversal mechanism of wrinkled FeCoTa films can be interpreted by a two-phase model composed of both coherent rotation and domain wall nucleation. With the enhancement of uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, the domain wall nucleation becomes pronounced in FeCoTa films.

Engineering the Switching Behavior of Nanomagnets for Logic Computation Using 3-D Modeling and Simulation

In this paper, we show the feasibility of tuning both the location of domain wall nucleation and the required nucleation field by changing the geometry of nanomagnets using shadowing effects. The perpendicular anisotropy is locally reduced by shadowing effects during sputter deposition. A 3-D model based on experimental measurements of fabricated nanomagnets has been developed. Experimental data from atomic force microscopy measurements and anisotropy measurements of fabricated Co/Pt-nanomagnets allow to realistically model the anisotropy and geometry of the nanomagnets. Micromagnetic simulations based on the developed 3-D model have been performed. It is shown that increasing the undercut in the resist decreases the switching field of the nanomagnets. By varying the tip geometry of the nanomagnet, the switching field can be further decreased, and subsequently, the nucleation point can be controlled, making this technique feasible for the use in perpendicular nanomagnetic logic circuitry.

Magnetization reversal in YIG/GGG(111) nanoheterostructures grown by laser molecular beam epitaxy

Thin (4–20 nm) yttrium iron garnet (Y3Fe5O12, YIG) layers have been grown on gadolinium gallium garnet (Gd3Ga5O12, GGG) 111-oriented substrates by laser molecular beam epitaxy in 700–1000 °C growth temperature range. The layers were found to have atomically flat step-and-terrace surface morphology with step height of 1.8 Å characteristic for YIG(111) surface. As the growth temperature is increased from 700 to 1000 °C the terraces become wider and the growth gradually changes from layer by layer to step-flow regime. Crystal structure studied by electron and X-ray diffraction showed that YIG lattice is co-oriented and laterally pseudomorphic to GGG with small rhombohedral distortion present perpendicular to the surface. Measurements of magnetic moment, magneto-optical polar and longitudinal Kerr effect (MOKE), and X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) were used for study of magnetization reversal for different orientations of magnetic field. These methods and ferromagnetic resonance studies have shown that in zero magnetic field magnetization lies in the film plane due to both shape and induced anisotropies. Vectorial MOKE studies have revealed the presence of an in-plane easy magnetization axis. In-plane magnetization reversal was shown to occur through combination of reversible rotation and abrupt irreversible magnetization jump, the latter caused by domain wall nucleation and propagation. The field at which the flip takes place depends on the angle between the applied magnetic field and the easy magnetization axis and can be described by the modified Stoner–Wohlfarth model taking into account magnetic field dependence of the domain wall energy. Magnetization curves of individual tetrahedral and octahedral magnetic Fe3+ sublattices were studied by XMCD.

Dynamic dependence to domain wall propagation through artificial spin ice

Domain wall propagation dynamics have been studied in nanostructured artificial kagome spin ice structures. A stripline circuit has been used to provide localised pulsed magnetic fields within the artificial spin ice structure. This provides control of the system through electrically assisted domain wall nucleation events. Synchronisation of the pulsed fields with additional global magnetic fields and the use of a focussed magneto-optical Kerr effect magnetometer allows our experiments to probe the domain wall transit through an extended ASI structure. We find that the propagation distance depends on the driving field revealing field driven properties of domain walls below their intrinsic nucleation field.

Magnetic behaviour of multisegmented FeCoCu/Cu electrodeposited nanowires

Understanding the magnetic behaviour of multisegmented nanowires (NWs) is a major key for the application of such structures in future devices. In this work, magnetic/non-magnetic arrays of FeCoCu/Cu multilayered NWs electrodeposited in nanoporous alumina templates are studied. Contrarily to most reports on multilayered NWs, the magnetic layer thickness was kept constant (30 nm) and only the non-magnetic layer thickness was changed (0 to 80 nm). This allowed us to tune the interwire and intrawire interactions between the magnetic layers in the NW array creating a three-dimensional (3D) magnetic system without the need to change the template characteristics. Magnetic hysteresis loops, measured with the applied field parallel and perpendicular to the NWs’ long axis, showed the effect of the non-magnetic Cu layer on the overall magnetic properties of the NW arrays. In particular, introducing Cu layers along the magnetic NW axis creates domain wall nucleation sites that facilitate the magnetization reversal of the wires, as seen by the decrease in the parallel coercivity and the reduction of the perpendicular saturation field. By further increasing the Cu layer thickness, the interactions between the magnetic segments, both along the NW axis and of neighbouring NWs, decrease, thus rising again the parallel coercivity and the perpendicular saturation field. This work shows how one can easily tune the parallel and perpendicular magnetic properties of a 3D magnetic layer system by adjusting the non-magnetic layer thickness.

Chiral-triggered magnetization switching in patterned media

The current triggered switching of patterned ferromagnetic elements over a heavy metal layer is analyzed in this work. A couple of symmetrically placed, but isolated, U-shaped elements, each one consisting of two oppositely tilted tapered spikes at the ends of a straight section, is theoretically studied by means of micromagnetic simulations. Our results indicate that the magnetization reversal processes deterministically start at a corner of the spikes selected by the direction of the current, as other experimental evidences claimed. Our study also reveals that the thermal agitation plays a supporting rather than a main role in promoting complete switching. Temperature assists the local magnetization reversal at the corners, resulting in the nucleation of domain walls. This inversion is mainly due to the Slonczewskii-like torque exerted by the spin current associated with the spin Hall effect. When domain walls are nucleated, the angular dependence of the current-driven dynamics of those walls, already reported in the literature, determines whether the process results in either a complete or a frustrated switching attempt. Besides, our statistical study reflects that complete switching is only achieved within a narrow range of current pulse amplitudes.

Detection of individual iron-oxide nanoparticles with vertical and lateral sensitivity using domain wall nucleation in CoFeB/Pt nanodevices

We present new studies of the characteristics and detection ability of nanoscale sensors based on domain wall nucleation within perpendicularly magnetised ultrathin CoFeB/Pt films. A combination of MFM imaging and anomalous Hall effect transport measurements were used to verify and characterise the behaviour of fabricated devices. After initial characterisation, the influence of magnetic nanoparticles on device behaviour was studied using individual iron oxide (FeOx) particles mounted on modified atomic force microscopy probes. We demonstrate the successful detection of particles ranging in diameter between 2.8 μm and 100 nm. In the case of the 2.8 μm particle, we have mapped the signal amplitude produced at a variety of distances from the sensor. We find that the particle’s influence may be detected at separations up to 700 nm. Furthermore, we demonstrate a method for resolving the location of a particle with respect to the centre of the device, providing a lateral sensing ability.

Self-organization and FORC-based magnetic characterization of ultra-high aspect ratio epitaxial Co nanostrips produced by oblique deposition on an ordered step-bunched silicon surface

Further development of microelectronics requires novel or improved technological approaches for device nanofabrication and functional properties characterization. In this paper, we studied the crystal structure and magnetic properties of epitaxial Co nanostrips with the average width of 32.6, 45.3, and 62.6 nm grown on a step-bunched Si(111)5.55 × 5.55-Cu/Cu surface. Technological conditions, under which the ultra-high aspect ratio (∼104) structurally solid, straight nanostrips of hcp-Co with crystallographic axis [0001] oriented along their long side can be grown, were determined. The dependence of the coercive force on the width of the nanostrips was demonstrated. Magnetization reversal through the transverse domain-wall nucleation and propagation in a Co nanostrip was defined with an analytical approach based on the Stoner–Wohlfarth model. Using the first-order reversal curve method, we analyzed the effect of nanostrip uniformity degree on magnetic behavior and the influence of the magnetostatic interactions on the coercive force of individual nanostrips.

Mechanical stress-induced switching kinetics of ferroelectric thin films at the nanoscale

We investigate ferroelectric domain structure and piezoelectric response under variable mechanical compressive stress in Pb(Zr0.2TiO0.8)O3 (PZT) thin films using high-resolution piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) and an in situ sample bending stage. Measurements reveal a drastic change in the ferroelectric domain structure which is presented along with details of the mediating switching process involving domain wall motion, nucleation, and domain wall roughening under an applied external mechanical stimulus. Furthermore, local PFM hysteresis loops reveal significant changes in the observed coercive biases under applied stress. The PFM hysteresis loops become strongly imprinted under increasing applied compressive stress.

A compact physical model for the simulation of pNML-based architectures

Among emerging technologies, perpendicular Nanomagnetic Logic (pNML) seems to be very promising because of its capability of combining logic and memory onto the same device, scalability, 3D-integration and low power consumption. Recently, Full Adder (FA) structures clocked by a global magnetic field have been experimentally demonstrated and detailed characterizations of the switching process governing the domain wall (DW) nucleation probability Pnuc and time tnuc have been performed. However, the design of pNML architectures represent a crucial point in the study of this technology; this can have a remarkable impact on the reliability of pNML structures. Here, we present a compact model developed in VHDL which enables to simulate complex pNML architectures while keeping into account critical physical parameters. Therefore, such parameters have been extracted from the experiments, fitted by the corresponding physical equations and encapsulated into the proposed model. Within this, magnetic structures are decomposed into a few basic elements (nucleation centers, nanowires, inverters etc.) represented by the according physical description. To validate the model, we redesigned a FA and compared our simulation results to the experiment. With this compact model of pNML devices we have envisioned a new methodology which makes it possible to simulate and test the physical behavior of complex architectures with very low computational costs.

Controlling domain wall nucleation and injection through focussed ion beam irradiation in perpendicularly magnetized nanowires

Using Ga+ focussed ion beam irradiation of Ta/Pt/CoFeB/Pt perpendicularly magnetized nanowires, the nucleation and injection fields of domain walls into the nanowires is controlled. The nucleation and injection fields can be varied as a function of dose, however, the range of injection fields is found to be limited by the creation of a step in anisotropy between the irradiated and unirradiated regions. This can be altered by defocussing the beam, which allows the injection fields to be further reduced. The ability to define an arbitrary dose profile allows domain walls to be injected at different fields either side of an asymmetrically irradiated area, which could form the initial stage of a logic device. The effect of the thickness of the magnetic layer and the thickness of a Ta underlayer on the dose required to remove the perpendicular anisotropy is also studied and is seen that for similar Ta underlayers the dose is determined by the thickness of the magnetic layer rather than its anisotropy. This finding is supported by some transport of ions in matter simulations.

Identifying weakly-interacting single domain states in Ni nanowire arrays by FORC

The control and understanding of magnetization reversal mechanisms and magnetostatic interactions in nanomagnet arrays is a critical point that has to be overcome in order to reach industrial applications. However, usual magnetic characterization techniques can only provide information on the overall array behaviour and are not able to discriminate relevant local properties. In this work, we show that the first-order reversal curve (FORC) method is a unique tool to identify weakly-interacting uniaxial single domain (SD) particles in systems with complex mixed magnetic states. We compare the FORC diagrams of two sets of Ni nanowire (NW) arrays electrodeposited in hexagonally ordered nanoporous alumina templates: A) with a uniform length distribution (interacting SD particles), and B) with a non-uniform length distribution. For non-uniform length distributions, regions of isolated NWs occur in the array, creating a complex mixture of strongly and weakly-interacting SD particles. These weakly-interacting NWs are here identified by a characteristic ridge along the coercive field axis of the FORC diagram. Micromagnetic simulations confirmed the presence of this weakly-interacting magnetic behaviour in the array with non-uniform length distributions. Combining FORC results with micromagnetic simulations, we show that the magnetization reversal of interacting wires occurs by the nucleation of transverse domain walls at the NWs' ends, while isolated wires nucleate vortex domain walls. This work thus highlights the importance of the FORC method for the accurate identification and understanding of local magnetic behaviours in nanomagnet arrays.

Magnetic switching probability of perpendicularly magnetized nano-dot

Understanding of magnetization reversal mode plays an important role in spintronic devices performance. Especially in Heat Assisted Magnetic Recording, the contribution of thermal field in the magnetization dynamics becomes a crucial aspect which should be further explored. In this paper, Landau Lifshift-Gilbert equation was employed to investigate the magnetic switching dynamics for nano-dots with different magnetic anisotropies. This micromagnetic study shows that these nano-dots exhibit the different mode of switching. Multi-domain configuration dictates the switching process for nano-dot with strong magnetic anisotropy before magnetized in the driven magnetic field direction. Meanwhile, multi-domain configuration, domain-wall nucleation, and propagation take place in the process to achieve magnetized single-domain for the nano-dot with the lower level of magnetic anisotropy. Furthermore, in the absence of the external magnetic field, magnetic moments of this low magnetic anisotropies nano-dot is more probably to reverse.

Domain wall spin structures in mesoscopic Fe rings probed by high resolution SEMPA

We present a combined theoretical and experimental study of the energetic stability and accessibility of different domain wall spin configurations in mesoscopic magnetic iron rings. The evolution is investigated as a function of the width and thickness in a regime of relevance to devices, while Fe is chosen as a material due to its simple growth in combination with attractive magnetic properties including high saturation magnetization and low intrinsic anisotropy. Micromagnetic simulations are performed to predict the lowest energy states of the domain walls, which can be either the transverse or vortex wall spin structure, in good agreement with analytical models, with further simulations revealing the expected low temperature configurations observable on relaxation of the magnetic structure from saturation in an external field. In the latter case, following the domain wall nucleation process, transverse domain walls are found at larger widths and thicknesses than would be expected by just comparing the competing energy terms demonstrating the importance of metastability of the states. The simulations are compared to high spatial resolution experimental images of the magnetization using scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis to provide a phase diagram of the various spin configurations. In addition to the vortex and simple symmetric transverse domain wall, a significant range of geometries are found to exhibit highly asymmetric transverse domain walls with properties distinct from the symmetric transverse wall. Simulations of the asymmetric walls reveal an evolution of the domain wall tilting angle with ring thickness which can be understood from the thickness dependencies of the contributing energy terms. Analysis of all the data reveals that in addition to the geometry, the influence of materials properties, defects and thermal activation all need to be taken into account in order to understand and reliably control the experimentally accessible states, as needed for devices.

Controlling domain wall nucleation and propagation with temperature gradients

Field driven nucleation and propagation of transverse domain walls (DWs) in Fe nanowires under thermal gradients were studied using Monte Carlo simulations. Simulations identified that thermal gradients contribute to stabilizing nucleation of multiple DWs. The results also showed that the correct combination of a magnetic field and temperature gradients applied along a wire can provide a high degree of control over the direction, velocity, and acceleration of DW propagation, which is of paramount importance for technological applications.

A general perspective on the magnetization reversal in cylindrical soft magnetic nanowires with dominant shape anisotropy

Peculiarities of the magnetization reversal process in cylindrical Ni-Cu soft magnetic nanowires with dominant shape anisotropy are analyzed via both static and time dependent micromagnetic simulations. A reversible process involving a coherent-like spin rotation is always observed for magnetic fields applied perpendicularly to the easy axis whereas nucleation of domain walls is introduced for fields applied along the easy axis. Simple criteria for making distinction between a Stoner-Wohlfarth type rotation and a nucleation mechanism in systems with uniaxial magnetic anisotropy are discussed. Superposed reversal mechanisms can be in action for magnetic fields applied at arbitrary angles with respect to the easy axis within the condition of an enough strong axial component required by the nucleation. The dynamics of the domain wall, involving two different stages (nucleation and propagation), is discussed with respect to initial computing conditions and orientations of the magnetic field. A nucleation time of about 3ns and corkscrew domain walls propagating with a constant velocity of about 150m/s are obtained in case of Ni-Cu alloy (Ni rich side) NWs with diameters of 40nm and high aspect ratio.

Nucleation, imaging, and motion of magnetic domain walls in cylindrical nanowires

We report several procedures for the robust nucleation of magnetic domain walls in cylindrical permalloy nanowires. Specific features of the magnetic force microscopy (MFM) contrast of such wires are discussed, to avoid the misinterpretation of the magnetization states. The domain walls moved under quasistatic magnetic fields in the range 0.1–10 mT, as evidenced by MFM at remanence at different stages of their motion.

Localized domain wall nucleation dynamics in asymmetric ferromagnetic rings revealed by direct time-resolved magnetic imaging

We report time-resolved observations of field-induced domain wall nucleation in asymmetric ferromagnetic rings using single direction field pulses and rotating fields. We show that the asymmetric geometry of a ring allows for controlling the position of nucleation events, when a domain wall is nucleated by a rotating magnetic field. Direct observation by scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM) reveals that the nucleation of domain walls occurs through the creation of transient ripplelike structures. This magnetization state is found to exhibit a surprisingly high reproducibility even at room temperature and we determine the combinations of field strengths and field directions that allow for reliable nucleation of domain walls and directly quantify the stability of the magnetic states. Our analysis of the processes occurring during field induced domain wall nucleation shows how the effective fields determine the nucleation location reproducibly, which is a key prerequisite toward using domain walls for spintronic devices.

Biphasic Fe[sbnd]Rh nanowires synthesized by AC electrodeposition

Fe and Fe90Rh10 (nominal) polycrystalline nanowire arrays, 20 nm in diameter and about 1–3 mm in length, are successfully synthesized by AC electrodeposition into the cylindrical pores of anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) nanotemplates. The effects of Rh addition to Fe nanowires on the resulting microstructure, magnetic hysteresis and magnetoresistance properties are explored. As deposited Fe90Rh10 nanowires are biphasic, with large α−Fe grains (>100 nm) and clusters of very small (1.7 nm) grains of the ClCs type α′-FeRh phase, with a composition near Fe42Rh58. Hysteresis loops as a function of the sample orientation relative to the external applied field indicate that the easy magnetization axis is parallel to the nanowire long axis at all temperatures. The coercive field decreases with rhodium addition, as expected for an effective uniaxial anisotropy controlled by shape effects; on contrary, the relative remanence (or squareness) slightly increases. The temperature dependence of the coercive field is consistent with a mechanism involving nucleation of inverse domains, with an apparent energy barrier at zero fields between 2.6 and 4.1 eV. Room temperature magnetoresistance in Fe90Rh10 arrays is negative and shows hysteresis at low fields. At low temperature a large hysteresis is observed for fields between the knees in the hysteresis loop, with field ranges of positive and negative magnetoresistance slopes, arising in domain wall nucleation and expansion to complete polarization reversal and in conventional anisotropic magnetoresistance, respectively.

Ionic-liquid gating of perpendicularly magnetised CoFeB/MgO thin films

We present the modulation of anisotropy field, coercivity, and domain wall (DW) velocity in CoFeB/MgO thin films with perpendicular anisotropy by applying voltages across an ionic liquid gate. Domain wall velocities in the creep regime can be modulated by a factor of 4.2, and the anisotropy field of the device can be modulated by 40 mT when going from +0.8 V to −0.8 V. The applied E-fields are seen to significantly influence DWs' pinning, depinning, and nucleation processes. In addition, we report on the evolution of the magnetic properties of the liquid/solid device as a function of time going from the pristine CoFeB/MgO film through device fabrication and operation up to one month. These results show that the solid/liquid device structure based on CoFeB/MgO thin films can be an efficient way to control magnetic properties with voltages below 1 V.