Doctrine Theory Research Articles

Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the most offensive of them all? – Explaining the offensive bias in military tactical thinking

ABSTRACTThis article explores why the offensive predominates military tactical thinking. With survey results showing an offensive bias among 60 per cent of senior Swedish officers and as many as 80 per cent in the case of the army, it is clear that this is not just a problem of the past but is equally relevant today. The article asks why there is a tendency to perceive and understand offensive tactics as the preferred choice and the way to conduct battle that should be encouraged and preferred. Drawing on existing research and the findings of a pilot study, ten propositions for why the offensive bias exists are tested using a mixed-method approach. Based on the findings, the article develops a model to understand why the offensive dominates military tactical thinking. It is found that the two key constitutive factors behind the offensive bias are military culture and education. These factors most directly and profoundly influence an officer’s identity, perceptions, and thinking. Military culture and education, in turn, work as a prism for four other factors: military history, the theory and principles of war, doctrine and TTPs, and psychological factors.

John Henry Newman's Theology of History: Historical Consciousness, Theological 'Imaginaries', and the Development of Tradition by Christopher Cimorelli

Reviewed by: John Henry Newman's Theology of History: Historical Consciousness, Theological 'Imaginaries', and the Development of Tradition by Christopher Cimorelli Brian W. Hughes John Henry Newman's Theology of History: Historical Consciousness, Theological 'Imaginaries', and the Development of Tradition BY CHRISTOPHER CIMORELLI Leuven: Peeters, 2017. xii + 356 pages. Softcover: $98.00. ISBN: 978-90-429-3438-2. Readers expecting a deep, archaeological investigation into how Newman understood "history" theologically will be a bit disappointed—or delighted—by Cimorelli's serious contribution to Newman scholarship. The book is a welcome addition to the subject of Newman's view of how history informs his "theological imaginary." It is especially important for understanding Newman's theological methodology and investigations as they pertain to his labors against liberalism, his working out theories of history in Arians, the development of his own view of the church, and a constructive proposal for a "relationship-developmental view of doctrine"—drawing on both Charles Taylor and Nicholas Lash to do so. It is even more welcome because it fills a serious gap in scholarship. There are few to no serious monographs of Newman's theology of history. Recent works that overlap a bit with Cimorelli's project include Andrew Meszaros, The Prophetic Church: History and Doctrinal Development in John Henry Newman and Yves Congar (Oxford, 2016). Yet as the title suggests, Meszaros's text is not solely about Newman, nor does it focus on Newman's early historical work in Arians or stages of his thinking that led up to the Essay on Development as does Cimorelli's book. Another recent work a bit closer in subject matter is Benjamin J. King's Newman and the Alexandrian Fathers: Shaping Doctrine in Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford, 2009). Yet, King is not as interested in investigating how Newman appropriated and conceived of history in his theological methodology, nor does King display a trajectory toward a theory of doctrine as "narrative-linguistic icons" (283). Indeed, the main lines of argument from chapters one through four ultimately aim at Cimorelli's more original contribution: a theology of doctrinal development in chapter five. The content of the chapters is not investigated simply to find out what Newman thought. Cimorelli aims to show how Newman's theology can still provide ways of thinking about how Christians might understand history-church-doctrine-participation and liturgy as a more integrated [End Page 113] whole for the post-Vatican II people of God. In chapter three, Cimorelli painstakingly traces several theories in Arians that bear upon the emergence of doctrinal principles and, ultimately, reveal the importance for an authoritative magisterial church to declare infallibly on points of heterodoxy and orthodoxy. As such, this chapter's aim helps to foreshadow Newman's more participative idea of Christianity and church unity through time. Cimorelli finds Nicolas Lash's distinction helpful that doctrines do not "describe" so much as "refer to" God (294). In this way, divine mystery and truth are protected from idolatry and narrow ideological passion. In a serious way, one title of the book could be "The close integration of doctrine-creed-liturgy and practice for the church of today"—though the focus centers on theology and history. A good summary of this project is given by Cimorelli: "Doctrines, when conceived in a relational, developmental, and narrative manner, call for the ongoing engagement of the faithful, particularly in the liturgy. Such participation provides for the ongoing development and vitality of tradition" (285). That certain teachings expressed in doctrinal or creedal form exhibit a "narrative" character means that Christians are a community-in-history with stories and events that tell how revelation becomes more clearly and fully expressed in different ages. Part of Cimorelli's aim here is to get beyond a mere "propositional assent" model of doctrine to one that engages the believers more personally. Expressed a bit more technically, Cimorelli desires to hold in tension the "synchronic" and "diachronic" properties of doctrine (302). Stories and history have the power to root and connect modern identity with prior Christian experiences. As he argues, doctrines "represent the crystallized remnants of complex and interrelated narratives, and are part of the much larger Christian narrative" (emphasis is Cimorellis's...

Borders of states’ jurisdiction in regard to international commercial arbitration

The article is devoted to the problem of binding the arbitral proceedings to the place’s legislation where they are held. This binding, which was justified in the doctrine through the postulates of legal positivism in the first quarter of the 20th century and implemented in the first international treaties related to international commercial arbitration, has now lost its practical significance and creates many difficulties for all participants of arbitration. For many decades, there has been a steady trend towards the separation of international commercial arbitration into a special autonomous legal order, which is expressed both in the doctrinal theory of the delocalization of international commercial arbitration and in the legislation of states pursuing a friendly policy. The author considers some of the problems that arise from the existence of binding the arbitral proceedings to the laws of the place where it is held, conducts a historical and legal analysis of the origin and development of this binding, and analyzes the existing concepts about the nature of international commercial arbitration institution where the need of binding the arbitration to a particular state jurisdiction, or the absence of such a need, are substantiated. Basing on a detailed review of the individual components of the dispute procedure in international commercial arbitration, the existing manifestations of its autonomy, as well as the problems of the institutions for contesting, recognizing and enforcing arbitral awards, the author draws conclusions about the possibility of refusing to bind arbitration proceedings to the jurisdiction of the place where it is held, and also suggests possible ways to implement such a refusal.

SPECIFIC STUDIES IN THE STRUCTURE OF GENERAL CRIMINALISTIC THEORY

Conceptual approaches to formation and application of certain criminalistic doctrines (theories) as scientific constructions forming the basis of criminalisctic general theory structure and developing the level of theoretical and methodological basis of this science are considered. The author's opinion of Specific Criminalisctic Doctrine (Theory) concept is offered and proposals are made regarding systematization of specific criminalisctic studies, their place in the structure of the criminalistic general theory. It is proposed to allocate two blocks in the structure of the general theory: 1) criminalistic science based essentials including specific criminalistic doctrines (theories) of general scientific level about object, subject, methods, scope of research, system, nature, conceptual apparatus and criminalistic categories (Criminalistic language), its interscientific relations and place in the system of knowledge, development history and the present state; 2) criminalistic theories (doctrines) of a separate scientific level relating to research of patterns that are part of the research subject of criminalistics reveal its essence and specifics. It is emphasized that regularity nature exploring each of specific criminalistic doctrines (theories) determines the order of their ordering in the structure of general theory. Thus between subjects of general criminalistic theory and specific criminalistic doctrines (theories) there are relations of subordination of the whole and part. It is noted that modern system of specific criminalistic doctrines (theories) is dynamic and its improvement is conditioned by the needs of judicial and investigative practice, by the development of related knowledge branches, by the general theory and the most specific criminalistic doctrines, by the relation change and relationships between them. Criteria that should correspond to a specific criminalistic doctrine (theory) are defined. In particular, attention was drawn to the fact that each specific criminalistic doctrine (theory) should have object, subject and research method, reveal its content and nature of relations with other doctrines (theories), define the purpose, tasks, functions and place in criminalistic system, be formed on a certain scientific hypothesis, have necessary empirical basis, as well as the corresponding degree of consolidation determining the possibility of identifying certain regularities expanding and clarifying the subject of criminalistic science in general. Controversial issues regarding this problem are separated; optimizing scientific development ways in this field of knowledge are outlined.

LIMITES NORMATIVOS PARA A DESCONSIDERAÇÃO DA PERSONALIDADE JURÍDICA NO CUMPRIMENTO DA SENTENÇA

A teoria da desconsideração da personalidade jurídica constitui uma eficiente ferramenta para evitar o enriquecimento ilícito decorrente do uso irregular da personalidade jurídica. Seja a desconsideração direta da personalidade jurídica, a inversa ou a entre grupos econômicos, o instituto tem por objetivo a inoponibilidade dos limites de responsabilidade previstos no contrato social perante o juízo. O instituto é processado como forma de intervenção de terceiro, e todos os envolvidos devem ser citados no processo. Quando o incidente é instaurado na fase de cumprimento da sentença, porém, surge a questão da legitimidade. Quem não participou da fase de conhecimento do processo não possui legitimidade para participar da fase executiva. A decisão que julga procedente o pedido de desconsideração da personalidade jurídica deve, então, ser modulada para definir quais sujeitos terão legitimidade para participar do processo em sua fase executória.

Chief Justice Sandile Ngcobo’s Separation of Powers Jurisprudence

This article examines Justice Ngcobo’s profound contribution to the development of the foundational jurisprudence on separation of powers in South Africa. The article is premised on the fact that Ngcobo can be better understood in the context of his contribution to the foundational jurisprudence. In this way, we will better comprehend how Ngcobo’s jurisprudence fits into our contemporary understanding of the Constitution. The key question this article seeks to investigate is to what extent has Ngcobo’s jurisprudence on separation of powers has impacted or shaped South African constitutional law. The article specifically investigates whether, in his contribution to the constitutional jurisprudence on separation of powers, Ngcobo developed a political question doctrine theory for South Africa. I find that he did, and that while Justice Ngcobo’s political question jurisprudence was not clearly articulated or endorsed by the majority of the Justices while he was on the bench, the Constitutional Court has recently unanimously endorsed some of his political question doctrine theories and arguments thereby crystallising the political question theory in South Africa. The article examines Ngcobo’s contribution through the lens of the judgments that he penned as well as his academic commentaries

16-17세기 朝鮮 經學에 있어서 朱子 中和說의 수용과 비판 – 趙翼과 朴世堂의 中和說을 중심으로

This This paper examines the acceptance and criticism of Zhuzi(朱子)’s Zhonghe(中和) theory in the Choseon Jingxue(經學) of the 16th and 17th Centuries. In order to discuss the Zhuzi(朱子)’s Zhonghe(中和) theory, I first thought that the conceptual analysis of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) is necessary for the ‘喜怒哀樂之未發謂之中, 發而皆中節謂之和’. As a result of this analysis, it was confirmed that the concept of Zhonghe(中和) of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) was basically a matter of feeling. This indicates that the Zhonghe(中和) idea of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) takes the issue of feeling more important than reason. This point can be understood as a dimension of the same context in that Western thought emphasizes reason and Eastern thought emphasizes emotion. It is judged that the Zhonghe(中和) idea of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) centering on this feeling of appreciation has led to the time of the Lijizhushu(禮記注疏). This Zhonghe(中和) thought based on emotion of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸) is newly interpreted by the Cheng-Zhu School(程朱學). Especially, the recognition of ‘Zhong(中)’ in the Weifa(未發) as Li(理) can be called a great change in the mind-nature theory(心性論) of Doctrine of the Mean(中庸). This interpretation of Zhonghe(中和) was largely accepted in the 16th and 17th century Choseon Dynasty, and the representative character is Cho Ik(趙翼). On the other hand, there was also a person who did not accept this interpretation of Zhonghe(中和) as it was. The representative figure is Park Sedang. Park Sedang was unable to accept Zhu Xi’s philosophical interpretation of Weifa(未發) in his perception of Zhonghe(中和) theory. He recognized that in human mind there could hardly be a state of Weifa(未發) in which a glimmer of thought does not arise. This is why he did not accept Zhu xi’s philosophical interpretation of considering the state of 'Weifa(未發) as ‘Jiran-Budong(寂然不動)’. I think that Park Sedang's view on Zhonghe(中和) is closer to the previous Zhonghe theory(中和舊說) of Zhu Xi.

TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE OF CHARACTERISTICS AND WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF LEGISLATION IN THE FIELD OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN UKRAINE

The article investigates intellectual property law through the prism of the theory of law and civilization doctrine. The justification is given why the intellectual property relations should be considered as an object of civil legal regulation. The complexity of the challenges faced by Ukraine in the process of developing a national system of intellectual property legislation is underlined. The link between the quality of legislative regulation, law enforcement and the legal culture of society as a whole is confirmed. It is proved that intellectual property legislation can be characterized through functional, horizontal and vertical structures. The main sources of legislation in the field of intellectual property should include the Constitution of Ukraine and the Civil Code of Ukraine. The analysis of the provisions of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU provides grounds for arguing that the Agreement should also be considered as the main legal instrument for the intellectual property field. Also, the main source for regulating the status of a separate object of intellectual property right is to recognize and special laws in this area. It is emphasized that the prospect of development of legislation in the field of intellectual property may be the elimination of a double level of regulation of social relations in this area and the adoption of a single codified act that will be of a complex nature.

The Entrenched Minimum Provision of Judicial Review and the Limits of ‘Law’

The Australian Constitution constrains the scope of executive power that Parliament is capable of conferring in several ways. This article examines whether any constraints flow from the inherent requirements of ‘law’ itself. That is, is Parliament incapable of conferring executive power of a certain kind or breadth, because the statute that would be required to do so is simply not a ‘law’ for the purposes of the Australian Constitution? More broadly, the article explores the connection between constitutional doctrine and legal theory, and the ways in which statutory conferrals of very broad executive powers can diminish the rule of law.

Voluntary Remands: A Critical Reassessment

This Article explores and critiques the administrative law doctrine of voluntary remand. When petitioners challenge an agency policy, the agency may ask the reviewing court to return the policy to the agency for reconsideration-effectively terminating the court's role in the case. Voluntary-remand motions risk agency opportunism and political manipulation, but are nevertheless routinely and uncritically granted by courts. The Article explores the theory and history of voluntary-remand doctrine, observing that modern administrative law developments negate many of the doctrine's core assumptions. Accordingly, the Article calls for reassessing courts' willingness to grant voluntary remands.

A Eficácia Horizontal dos Direitos Fundamentais na Jurisprudência do Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 4ª Região (Rio Grande do Sul)

O artigo analisa a utilização da eficácia horizontal dos direitos fundamentais na jurisprudência do Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 4ª Região, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Também busca definir eficácia dos direitos fundamentais, em suas dimensões vertical e horizontal e as teorias doutrinárias a respeito da eficácia horizontal de tais direitos. Posterior apresenta a jurisprudência recente do tribunal regional laboral, na busca de decisões que, expressamente, afirmem a eficácia horizontal dos direitos fundamentais nas relações entre particulares de forma direta e imediata, como fundamentos e razões de decidir. O procedimento metodológico é o analítico-interpretativo de investigação bibliográfica e análise jurisprudencial.

Violations of human rights, use of chemical weapons and the phenomenon of “Non-State Actors”: a reflection about the U.N. Security Council resolutions related to Syria

The study suggests a reflection on the UN Security Council resolutions issued between 2013 and 2015 about the conflict in Syria. It offers a critical analysis of the various issues covered by the Security Council, mainly the related to the violation of human rights, the use of chemical weapons and terrorism. The analysis takes into account the main doctrinal theories of international law related to the three main arguments treated with a reflection oriented to the analysis of the phenomenon of “non- State actors” playing on the Syrian scenario. Those actors, which have been firstly considered as internal rebel groups, secondly treated as terrorist groups, escalated in the last period of the conflict into a peculiar entity which threatens the international community acting as a “para-State” searching for a dangerous sort of legitimation. In view of this risk, the response of the UN Security Council has been uncertain so far and paved the way for new and serious challenges for the international community which are highlighted by the article.

Communication, defamation and liability of intermediaries

The legal framework concerning liability of communication intermediaries for defamation is under-conceptualised. The paper thus develops a holistic doctrinal approach to liability of speech intermediaries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), booksellers and newspaper vendors, for defamation. It views intermediary liability for defamatory speech against the backdrop of communication theory and freedom of expression doctrine. If properly conceptualised, as suggested in this paper, the law of defamation can accommodate the cyberspace-specific legislation in Arts 12–15 of the e-commerce Directive and s 5 of the Defamation Act 2013, as well as the innocent dissemination defence in s 1 of the Defamation Act 1996, now to be read together with s 10 of the Defamation Act 2013. The paper establishes six tenets of intermediary liability for defamatory content. In particular, it argues that ‘publication’ is to be conceptualised as a merely factual requirement for defamation, whereas the defence of ‘innocent publication’, also known as ‘innocent dissemination’, is a fault-based concept. Communication intermediaries are thus to be considered ‘publishers’, even if they have a merely automatic role in the publication process, but they may avail themselves of the defence of ‘innocent publication’. This defence has to be applied in compliance with the human rights of the parties involved.

HENRY CAREY’S RURAL ROOTS, “SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE,” AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE ANTEBELLUM NORTH

The American political economist Henry Charles Carey is generally thought of as a spokesman for industrialization due to his strident protectionism. In fact, his most original contributions came in his discussions of agriculture, the environment, and their relation to technological progress. Carey developed his ideas by drawing on the contemporary discourse of “scientific agriculture,” which enjoyed great influence, thanks to a widespread agricultural reform movement. This allowed him to argue effectively against Malthusian population doctrine and Ricardian rent theory by stressing the almost limitless potential of technological innovation, not only in manufactures but also in agriculture. Analogous views were also expressed by George Perkins Marsh, known today as the “father of conservationism,” indicating a broader contemporary engagement with questions of economic development and humanity’s relationship to nature, an engagement in some ways strikingly parallel to present-day concerns.

Individuals Are Continents; or, Why It's Time to Retire the Island Approach to Addiction

Individuals are not island isolates. This is an old insight that finds expression in indigenous worldviews, ancient philosophies, religious doctrine, and modern social theories. Even so, science remains encumbered by the false dichotomies and reductionism inherited from the capitalist revolution and reinforced by the fragmentation of modern life. This same heritage encumbers addiction research and efforts to devise effective interventions. It does so because the island concept at its core filters out the most decisive factors contributing to addiction. We therefore recommend its replacement with what we call the continental concept of the individual, which conceives of society and the natural environment as extensions of individual corporeal bodies. Such a theoretical reorientation has significant implications for intervention research and practice. More specifically, it radically expands the scope of what constitutes a valid intervention in the first place. We call this reorientation the continental approach to drug addiction.

Paradoxes of Economic Theories and Politics

The article gives an overview of the evolution of economic theories, the conditions which led to the formation of their modern schools and focuses on the analysis of arising classic, neoclassic and Keynesian doctrines encouraged by the growth and development of productive forces (factors of production), the formation of big corporations-monopolists and technological progress. The severe global recessions (1929-1933) and other shocks of the capitalist system brought to life the doctrinal theory, which is alternative to the classical one. The doctrinal theory was a theoretic and methodological basis of the System for half a century, then it was replaced by neoliberal and monetarist theories that proved to be inconsistent during the global crisis and depression in 2008-2013. The article also touches upon the necessity to change the economic policy of Russia an urgent problem resulting from a policy of the Western countries trying to suffocate the country with sanctions.

Paradoxes of Economic Theories and Politics

The article gives an overview of the evolution of economic theories, the conditions which led to the formation of their modern schools and focuses on the analysis of arising classic, neoclassic and Keynesian doctrines encouraged by the growth and development of productive forces (factors of production), the formation of big corporations-monopolists and technological progress. The severe global recessions (1929–1933) and other shocks of the capitalist system brought to life the doctrinal theory, which is alternative to the classical one. The doctrinal theory was a theoretic and methodological basis of the System for half a century, then it was replaced by neoliberal and monetarist theories that proved to be inconsistent during the global crisis and depression in 2008–2013. The article also touches upon the necessity to change the economic policy of Russia — an urgent problem resulting from a policy of the Western countries trying to suffocate the country with sanctions.

Changing Traditional Mechanisms of Russian Law: Protection of Means of Individualization on the Internet

This article is motivated by the growing interest in the problem of Internet trademark usage and the comparatively low interest in the non-Internet equivalent. Despite the fact that differences in the regulation of on-line and off-line trademark utilization have been recognized over a long period of time, there is still no harmonization among the numerous Russian laws in the field of ‘other means of individualization’. Although recent research studies have been numerous, lawmakers still haven’t decided on how the Internet has influenced the exclusive rights granted within Chapter 76 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. The issue at hand is affected by the significant growth of the Internet and electronic commerce. Moreover, the problem discussed in this paper arises from the fundamental question of limits on the exercise of subjective civil rights.The aim of this paper is to analyze different means of individualization under Russian legislation; to show key aspects of usage and protection of the means of individualization on-line; to reveal the doctrinal theories stipulating the emergence of new distinctive objects; to describe the current and potential pitfalls of the legislative framework; and to demonstrate modern legal trends in this field. In addition, this paper suggests different steps for and models of further regulatory development.

The cost of a military operation: A criterion approach

The purpose of the armed forces is to carry out their assigned missions and tasks through a wide range of operations, which may be combat and non-combat ones. The doctrinal theory of the Serbian Armed Forces has redefined the concept of operations. This has greatly contributed to an easier approach to the evaluation of operations through their cost price. In the world there is no single model of calculating the cost of a military operation, which would apply to all types of operations prepared and executed by the military. This paper discusses four criterion approaches to calculating the cost of a military operation, as follows: (1) using the operation factors, as identified by Operations Doctrine, (2) using the phases of operation, and (3) using the standards set by the EU for calculating the costs of peacekeeping missions and operations, and (4) experiences of the US Armed Forces.

Rituals of Prosecution: The Roman Inquisition and the Prosecution of Philo-Protestants in Sixteenth-Century Italy, by Jane K. Wickersham

Rituals of Prosecution: The Roman Inquisition and the Prosecution of Philo-Protestants in Sixteenth-Century Italy, by Jane K. Wickersham. Toronto, Ontario, University of Toronto Press, 2012. viii, 430 pp. $80.00 Cdn (cloth). Cloaking one's religious identity was a common practice in early modern Europe --conversos and crypto-Jews in the Iberian Peninsula, Christian sailors and slaves turned Turk in the Mediterranean, and Protestants in Catholic lands all populated the religious landscape of the early modern world. In Catholic territories--where religious orthodoxy and solidarity were considered important by the Church and its leaders--institutions had been created to discover what John J. Martin has called hidden enemies in the sixteenth-century Venetian context. These institutions--both the Spanish and Roman Inquisitions--were tribunals created with the goal of detecting and rehabilitating heretics and, failing that, purging the body politic of the faithful of religiously diseased members. Scholars have long studied the Inquisition from a diversity of perspectives ranging from the legal and doctrinal theories and practices of inquisitions and their staff, to the religious beliefs of heretics, and even recently--as seen in the work of Richard Kagan and Abigail Dyer--to recreating the lives of the forgotten people of Europe. Jane K. Wickersham, in this original study of the legal practices and religious concerns of the Roman Inquisition, takes the novel approach of examining ritual practices as the basic criteria for both Inquisition manual writers and various regional tribunals for detecting Protestants in their territories. Her central argument is that, by the mid-sixteenth century, both in theory and in practice --that is in inquisition manuals and in the various trials of the actual tribunals--ritual practices had become the main means of identifying philo-Protestants, Italians holding religious and doctrinal views similar to those of Luther and other prominent reformers to the North. Failure to attend Mass, take part in penance, observe fasting times and a host of other rituals became de facto admissions of guilt. A second argument that Wickersham makes is that the Roman Inquisition's legal practices themselves should be seen as ritual. This argument is less successful than the first, primarily because it is pushed to the background and never receives a full theoretical investigation as does the primary thesis. In the first chapter, Wickersham lays down her working definition of philo-Protestantism in sixteenth-century Italy. Rather than seeing it as entirely influenced by specific currents of Protestantism and reform from the North--despite the Roman Inquisition's blanket use of the term Luterani to describe heretics--she finds that Italian Protestantism was fed by both homegrown and trans-Alpine currents of religious thought and that it was characterized by a diversity of belief and practice rather than adhering to any one doctrine or confessional system. What held this disparate group--both religiously and geographically disparate--together was their criticism of Catholic ritual as deterrent to true faith. Some of them refused to take part in any ritual whatsoever, whether Mass, penance, or observing Lenten fasts, while others took part in the rituals while meeting in secret to read the Bible and receive instruction in Protestant doctrines. …