Diverse Agricultural Systems Research Articles

The LTAR Grazing Land Common Experiment at Platte River High Plains Aquifer.

The Long-Term Agroecosystem Research (LTAR) network of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) consists presently of 18 sites within the contiguous United States that are managed by the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and its partners. The LTAR network focuses on developing national strategies for more efficient, resilient, and profitable agricultural production systems, improved environmental quality, and enhanced rural prosperity. The Platte River High Plains Aquifer (PRHPA) LTAR site is managed jointly by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) and USDA-ARS and is one of the LTAR sites that conduct research on both integrated cropping and grazing systems. The PRHPA region encompasses multiple land resource areas and diverse agricultural production systems. The PRHPA sites, predominantly located in eastern Nebraska, are designated as an integrated system focused specifically on the region's dominant production practices of row crop (corn and soybean), managed pastures, and beef cattle production. Here, we focus on C3 cool-season smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.) pasture grazing systems under prevailing and alternative management practices for the region. The sites evaluate continuous and rotational grazing with and without pasture fertilization (prevailing practices). In an additional treatment, cattle are supplemented with dry distillers grains plus solubles, while manure supplies fertilization (alternative practice). Main measurements at the site evaluate plant and animal productivity, forage quality, greenhouse gas fluxes, and soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. This paper describes the regional characteristics of the PRHPA site, ongoing LTAR research related to pasture and livestock production, stakeholder engagement, and future research plans.

Impact of Farm Management on Soil Fertility in Agroforestry Systems in Bali, Indonesia

Expansion and intensification of agricultural land in the tropics increasingly raises environmental concerns and questions about sustainability of production systems. A key parameter to consider when assessing the sustainability of production systems is soil fertility, and of particular interest are macronutrients, pH, electrical conductivity, and microbial communities. To understand which environmental factors influence soil fertility, we studied the abovementioned key parameters in two agroforestry systems (rustic and polyculture) in Bali, Indonesia. Via Generalized Linear Models, we found that agroforestry system, canopy cover, crop richness, tree richness, and yields had differing effects on topsoil (0–5 cm) and subsoil (10–15 cm) properties, including C:N ratios, conductivity, K, organic C, P, and total microbes. We found a higher C:N ratio in topsoil (p = 0.027), higher organic carbon content in topsoil (p = 0.009) and subsoil (p < 0.001), higher total microbes in subsoil (p = 0.001), and lower phosphorus levels in topsoil (p < 0.001) in rustic than in polyculture systems. Rustic systems may foster conditions conducive to soil fertility, and in our study, canopy cover (p < 0.001) and tree richness (p < 0.001) emerge as a key positive drivers of the total number of microbes in topsoil. The positive associations observed between crop and tree richness with electrical conductivity and total microbe counts underscore the importance of biodiversity in enhancing soil fertility, emphasizing the need for diversified agricultural systems to promote soil fertility. With soil fertility declining across the world due to global investments in agricultural intensification, it is vital that food production systems divert to the use of systems such as agroforestry in order to ensure soil sustainability and food security for future generations.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation for Sustainable Agriculture Development Under Climate Change–New Insights From a Meta‐Analysis

ABSTRACTBiological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in legume crops is a crucial ecosystem service that enhances soil nitrogen and reduces the need for chemical fertilisers. This study evaluates the factors influencing the proportion of plant nitrogen derived from atmospheric fixation (Ndfa) in legume crops. We compiled a global dataset spanning from 1980 to 2018 and used the 15N method to assess the impacts of crop species, climatic conditions, stand composition and nitrogen fertilisation on Ndfa. The global meta‐analysis reveals that the percentage of nitrogen derived from atmospheric fixation (Ndfa) in legumes ranges from 5% to 99%, with an average of 68%. Fodder legumes exhibited higher Ndfa, averaging 75%, while grain legumes showed more variability, ranging from 38% to 85%, depending on species and climatic conditions. The significant variability in Ndfa underscores the complexity of the process, which is influenced by species‐specific traits, ecological conditions and competition in mixed stands. However, the current data is insufficient for precise Ndfa estimation in nitrogen balances and decision support tools. The study highlights the need for further research on the impact of nitrogen fertilisation and stand composition on Ndfa. These findings emphasise the potential of BNF to support sustainable agriculture by improving nitrogen availability and reducing dependence on synthetic fertilisers and particularly susceptibility to climate change challenges. To optimise the benefits of BNF, future research should focus on refining fertilisation regimes and exploring species‐specific responses to various ecological conditions. Exploring adaptive strategies, like selecting drought‐tolerant legumes and optimising irrigation, is essential. This will enhance the application of BNF in diverse agricultural systems, contributing to more sustainable and efficient farming practices.

Endophytic Fungi for Crops Adaptation to Abiotic Stresses.

Endophytic fungi (EFs) have emerged as promising modulators of plant growth and stress tolerance in agricultural ecosystems. This review synthesizes the current knowledge on the role of EFs in enhancing the adaptation of crops to abiotic stress. Abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures, pose significant challenges to crop productivity worldwide. EFs have shown remarkable potential in alleviating the adverse effects of these stresses. Through various mechanisms, including the synthesis of osmolytes, the production of stress-related enzymes, and the induction of plant defense mechanisms, EFs enhance plant resilience to abiotic stressors. Moreover, EFs promote nutrient uptake and modulate the hormonal balance in plants, further enhancing the stress tolerance of the plants. Recent advancements in molecular techniques have facilitated the identification and characterization of stress-tolerant EF strains, paving the way for their utilization in agricultural practices. Furthermore, the symbiotic relationship between EFs and plants offers ecological benefits, such as improved soil health and a reduced dependence on chemical inputs. However, challenges remain in understanding the complex interactions between EFs and host plants, as well as in scaling up their application in diverse agricultural systems. Future research should focus on elucidating the mechanisms underlying endophytic-fungal-mediated stress tolerance and developing sustainable strategies for harnessing their potential in crop production.

Fostering Microbial Activity and Diversity in Agricultural Systems

Fostering Microbial Activity and Diversity in Agricultural Systems

The Agricultural Economy of the Sanxingdui Culture (3700–3100 BP): Archaeological and Historical Evidence from the Chengdu Plain

Agriculture is a critical foundation for the development of large-scale complex and urban societies. Sanxingdui, located on the Chengdu Plain in western Sichuan and linked with the ancient Chinese Shu Kingdom, is one of the most distinctive archaeological sites in the world. However, despite its importance, the agricultural economy of the Sanxingdui culture and the Chengdu Plain remains poorly understood and heavily debated. This study synthesizes recent archaeological and historical evidence concerning the agricultural economy underpinning the increasing scale and social complexity at Sanxingdui and the greater Chengdu Plain prior to 2200 BP. Our analysis finds a mixed rice and dry-land millet farming economy, in conjunction with pig and chicken husbandry, during the Sanxingdui culture (3700–3100 BP). This integrated agricultural system likely began with the Baodun culture (4500–3700 BP), passing to the Sanxingdui culture (3700–3100 BP), Shierqiao culture (3100–2600 BP) and later, the Shu culture (2600–2300 BP). In addition, although gathering, hunting, and fishing accounted for relatively low proportions of the overall subsistence, the ancient peoples at Sanxingdui and across the Chengdu Plain continued these practices, supporting a diverse agricultural and food system. Understanding the subsistence at Sanxingdui offers key insights into the development of complex societies in southwest China, the contributions to Chinese culture, and the role of agriculture worldwide.

Fostering Microbial Activity and Diversity in Agricultural Systems

Fostering Microbial Activity and Diversity in Agricultural Systems

Performance of a winter wheat composite cross population in two temperate agroforestry systems – a Swiss case study

In agroforestry systems (AFS), where environmental conditions are highly variable at small spatial scales, the use of uniform genetic material of a single cultivar commonly grown in monoculture cropping might not be optimal. However, the use of composite cross populations (CCPs) that contain an inherent genetic variability might be a promising approach under the environmental variability created by trees in AFS. In this experimental trial, the performance of a CCP (‘CC-2 k’) of winter wheat was compared to a commercial variety (‘Wiwa’) in a split-plot design at two AFS (Feusisberg and Wollerau) in Central Switzerland. Yield of CC-2k (1.9 ± 0.7 Mg ha−1) was higher than yield of Wiwa (0.7 ± 0.4 Mg ha−1) in Wollerau, but yields did not differ between CCP and variety in Feusisberg (1.9 ± 0.7 Mg ha−1 and 2.0 ± 0.8 Mg ha−1, respectively). The interaction of site and variety was significant (p < 0.05). Wiwa had a higher protein, Fe and Ca content than CC-2k. Therefore, while the CC-2k outperformed Wiwa in terms of yield in one of the two AFS, Wiwa outperformed CC-2k in terms of quality. In this one-year field experiment, the composite cross population might have been better adapted to the heterogenous environment of agroforestry systems (found in one out of two sites) but failed to reach the high-quality product of modern cultivars. These initial results must be seen as first insights which need to be complemented by larger field experiments for generalisation. The findings of this study may be interpreted as an indication that further improvements in terms of quality might make CCPs a viable option for diversified agricultural systems with larger environmental heterogeneity than common monoculture cropping systems.

Soil salinization in Portugal: An in‐depth exploration of impact, advancements, and future considerations

AbstractSoil salinization poses a significant threat to agricultural production in Portugal. Collaborative research spanning three decades with the U.S. Salinity Laboratory in Riverside, California, has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of this issue. This study provides a concise overview of the causes of soil salinization in Portugal, focusing on ongoing efforts to comprehensively address this challenge. Key advancements highlighted in this study encompass the meticulous characterization of soil hydraulic and solute transport parameters, the application of cutting‐edge modeling tools for water flow and solute transport in diverse agricultural systems, and the utilization of innovative proximal and remote sensing methods for mapping soil salinity. Noteworthy results and practical implications of these advancements underscore their relevance in real‐world scenarios. While celebrating these achievements, the study emphasizes the current nature of the ongoing research, highlighting the dynamic landscape of soil salinization. The study underscores the imperative need for further advancements to effectively cope with soil salinization, especially in anticipation of the intensification of agricultural practices and the looming impacts of climate change. This comprehensive overview not only encapsulates past achievements but also sets the stage for future research endeavors in mitigating the pervasive effects of soil salinization on agricultural sustainability in Portugal.

Seed priming: An overview of techniques, mechanisms, and applications

Seed priming is a pre-sowing seed treatment method that has gained significant attention in recent years due to its potential to improve seed germination and early seedling growth. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of seed priming techniques, their underlying mechanisms, and diverse applications in crop production during the recent years. The article introduces the concept of seed priming and its importance in optimizing seed performance, discussing various seed priming techniques including osmotic priming, hydro-priming, hormonal priming, and microbial priming. Each technique is described in detail, outlining the specific procedures and conditions involved, and their advantages and limitations are discussed. The underlying mechanisms of seed priming are explored, elucidating the biochemical, physiological, and molecular changes that occur during seed priming, and the interactions between priming substances and seeds. The article also provides an in-depth analysis of the applications of seed priming, discussing its positive effects on seed germination, seedling vigour, stress tolerance, and its potential for sustainable agriculture. This review article serves as a valuable resource for researchers, scientists and faculties working in the field of seed technological research and progressive farmers who can adopt this technology for enhancing crop yield. This article provides insights into the techniques, mechanisms, and applications of seed priming for optimizing seed performance and enhancing crop productivity in diverse agricultural systems.

Relative and Unified Skill of Environmental, Edaphic, and Management Factors to Explain Crop Yield Variance Using Machine Learning

Highlights Random forests equipped with recursive feature elimination were used to predict crop yield variation using diverse predictors. The predictors belonged to either environmental, soils, or management domains. The best performing models combined predictors from all three domains and explained 75%-80% spatiotemporal yield variance. Extreme heat was most important among soils, management, and seasonal environment predictors in maize and soybean. Irrigation intensity, tile drainage, % silt, and July rain were most important at the sub-seasonal aggregation scale. Abstract. Crop yields are dictated by a complex interplay between environment, edaphic (soils), and management that are subject to change across space and time. However, to what extent each of these influences and their interactions have been important in explaining yield variance is limitedly understood. The convoluted nature of this question motivates the application of modern machine learning approaches to decipher these influences and elucidate crop yield relations with their critical drivers. Here, we used random forest modeling with recursive feature elimination (RFE) to discern the diverse drivers of historical (1981-2019) county-level maize and soybean yields in the U.S. within the realms of environment (growing and extreme degree days, precipitation, vapor pressure deficit, evaporative demand, crop water use, soil moisture), soils (sand, silt, and clay contents, bulk density, soil organic carbon, available water capacity), and management (irrigation intensity, tile drainage, nitrogen input, depth to groundwater). We found that the most effective models selected predictors from all three realms and achieved remarkable explanatory capability, accounting for 75%-80% of the spatial and temporal variance combined. Environmental predictors exhibited a non-negotiable role in determining model performance, while their combination with either soil or management predictors approached the efficacy of the best-performing model. Specific variables within each individual predictor set and their combinations were analyzed for their relative importance to the model skill. The best performing model that used soils, management, and seasonal environmental predictors evaluated extreme heat as the most influential predictor for both crops. On further inclusion of sub-seasonal environmental variables with soil and management predictors, the relative importance shifted, with irrigation intensity assuming prominence as the most influential predictor, accompanied by tile drainage, silt content, and July precipitation for both crops. RFE revealed that only eight of the most relevant predictors were sufficient to explain &amp;gt;70% of the yield variance, even when the total predictors included were as high as 52. that Visual representations were developed to offer insights into the functional response of crop yield to changes in critical predictors, thereby facilitating predictions across diverse agricultural production systems and over time. This research underscores the value of including soil and management indicators alongside environmental predictors to improve understanding and predictability of the intricate dynamics governing crop yield variability. Keywords: Climate variability, Drainage, Irrigation, Maize, Nitrogen, Random forest, Soils, Soybean.

Asynchrony is more important than genetic distance in driving yield stability in wheat variety mixtures

AbstractIn the face of climate change, improving yield stability is critical for food production systems. Increasing diversity in agricultural systems can be a way to stabilize yield across time and/or space. This can be done with mixtures of varieties, which represent a practical way to introduce diversity at the genotype level in agricultural fields. However, in Switzerland, wheat variety mixtures are still rarely used, due to a lack of understanding of the processes driving yield benefits and, consequently, no clear rules as to which varieties to combine. In this study, we used results from a Swiss wheat variety mixture trial to investigate the drivers of mixture productivity and stability. We hypothesized that mixtures composed of more different varieties—in terms of genetic distance but also of morphological, agronomic, or synchronicity aspects—would be more productive and/or stable. We did not find any effects of genetic distance on mixture productivity or stability, but we did observe an increase in mixture stability with reduced synchrony of the components, that is, when the components reacted differently to environmental conditions. This result was only significant in the first year of the trial, which was less productive due to more stressful conditions. This study shows that when combining asynchronous varieties, wheat variety mixtures have the potential to buffer possible yield losses due to external stressors during suboptimal years. While more research is needed to confirm this result, variety mixtures nonetheless represent a promising solution to sustainably increase the stability of wheat production in Switzerland.

Relevance of molecular systematics in insect pest management

Relevance of molecular systematics in insect pest management

Residues, An Alternative for Reducing Water Contamination, Leaching, and Greenhouse Gas Emission

This study investigated the efficacy of grape residue in reducing water contamination. Our findings revealed significant reductions in nitrate leaching upon the application of grape residues. Smaller residue particle sizes recorded greater reductions in nitrate leaching compared to larger ones. Utilizing grape waste branches for biochar production offers a sustainable solution, improving water retention, organic matter content, and reducing nutrient leaching. Biochar not only enhances nutrient retention but also promotes microbial activity and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, benefiting soil health and crop productivity. It also helps combat drought and salinity stress. Overall, grape biochar shows potential in mitigating nitrate pollution, enhancing soil quality, and promoting agricultural sustainability. It is important to consider the optimal biochar application rate and particle size to maximize its effectiveness in reducing nitrate leaching while minimizing any potential negative impacts on crop yield. Further research is required to optimize biochar application rates, particle sizes, and long-term effects in diverse agricultural systems. Implementing biochar as a soil amendment holds promise in improving soil health, water quality, and overall sustainability.

Consumers' preferences for commons-based and open-source produce: A discrete choice experiment with directional information manipulations

The increasing privatization of seeds and varieties through intellectual property rights such as patents and exclusive seed multiplication rights has led to power imbalances and contributes to the continuous decline of genetic diversity. Diversified agricultural systems are, however, essential for climate change adaptation and the long-term resilience of our food systems. Common ownership of seeds and varieties can play a central role in supporting the development of diversified agricultural systems. With the first commons/open-source varieties entering consumer markets, consumer preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for these varieties are worth exploring. On the example of tomatoes, we carried out a representative consumer survey with a discrete choice experiment. We find that consumers prefer commons/open-source varieties to company-owned varieties and are willing to pay a premium for these varieties. However, the premium they are willing to pay is smaller than for locally grown and organic produce. Providing additional information on the advantages of commons/open-source varieties positively affects WTP. There are no differences in WTP values for ‘commons varieties’ and ‘open-source varieties’. Our findings contribute to academic and policy discourses on consumers’ role in agrobiodiversity conservation and enhancement.

Climate change and managing insect pests and beneficials in agricultural systems

AbstractClimate change is expected to alter pressure from insect pests and the effectiveness of insect pollinators across diverse agricultural systems globally. In response to warming, insects are undergoing or are projected to undergo shifts in their geographic ranges, voltinism, abundance, and phenology. Effects on the focal insect species can be affected directly or indirectly, through their interactions with other species at higher and lower trophic levels. These climate‐driven effects are complex and as a result variable, sometimes increasing pest pressure or reducing pollination and sometimes with opposite effects depending on climatic baseline conditions and the interplay of contributing drivers. This uncertainty prevents effective responses. Furthermore, in addition to effects of climate change on insect pests and pollinators, projected and ongoing climate change is incentivizing changes in cropping systems such as altered tillage and increasing diversification and intensification with the potential to alter pests and pollinators as great as climate itself. Preparing for this uncertainty must be included in a framework for “Climate‐smart Integrated Pest and Pollinator Management,” as a component of agricultural production under climate change.

Effect of planning policies on land use dynamics and livelihood opportunities under global environmental change: Evidence from the Mekong Delta

The Mekong Delta faces significant challenges in supplying Vietnam and its export market countries with agricultural commodities, while ensuring livelihoods and providing living space to its growing population in the context of climate change and the country’s agrarian transition. Anthropogenic factors, such as the construction of dykes to control river flooding, river sand mining, the further development of triple-cropping rice production, and infrastructure development, together with climate change impacts on sediment and water availability, are all combining to threaten agricultural production. One of the key challenges in sustainable development is the need to identify plausible future states of agricultural-based socio-ecological systems which draw upon differing strategies of land management, and to characterise the impacts of these systems on both the landscape and employment. It was hypothesised from the literature and rapid rural appraisals that each land system can only provide a certain number of jobs, which was further demonstrated using binomial regressions. We show that the odds of being employed are lower for intensive agricultural systems (OR=0.78 for triple rice; 0.91 for intensive aquaculture) than for diversified systems (OR=1.16 for rice-aquaculture; OR=1.63 for mixed fruit trees). Drawing from workshops with local and national stakeholders, we then used Earth observation and national census data in a spatial land use systems dynamic framework to simulate two alternative Mekong Delta futures based upon the climate pathway RCP 4.5 in combination with two existing policies (i) Resolution No. 124 (Specialisation) which promotes triple crop rice and aquaculture intensification and (ii) Resolution No. 639 (Diversification), which states that there should be a development of sustainable rice aquaculture and crop diversification. Based on the quantitative objectives of each policy, we estimated likely changes of services provided by land use systems if either policy were to dominate. The estimated impacts of each future scenario on the provision of employment ultimately indicate that policies with a diversification development paradigm will provide more employment (+0.9%) than policies with a specialisation paradigm (−46%), and that current policies have potentially conflicting consequences. Decisions driving towards intensive farming risk triggering rural unemployment and outmigration, potentially exacerbating urban poverty in major cities such as Can Tho and Ho Chi Minh City. On the other hand, decisions aiming at increasing diversified agricultural systems can help secure more job opportunities. Our results indicate that spatial planning policies should rely on a broad-based assessment of land system services that include employment and environmental impacts to ensure a just transition towards resilient and environmentally sustainable rural territories.

Energy Balance Assessment in Agricultural Systems; An Approach to Diversification

The energy in agricultural systems is two-fold: transformation and utilization. The assessment and proper use of energy in agricultural systems is important to achieve economic benefits and overall sustainability. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the energy balance of crop and livestock production, net energy ratio (NER), and water use efficiency (WUE) of crops of a selected farm in Sri Lanka using the life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. In order to assess the diversification, 18 crops and 5 livestock types were used. The data were obtained from farm records, personal contacts, and previously published literature. Accordingly, the energy balance in crop production and livestock production was −316.87 GJ ha−1 Year−1 and 758.73 GJ Year−1, respectively. The energy related WUE of crop production was 31.35 MJ m−3. The total energy balance of the farm was 736.2 GJ Year−1. The results show a negative energy balance in crop production indicating an efficient production system, while a comparatively higher energy loss was shown from the livestock sector. The procedure followed in this study can be used to assess the energy balance of diversified agricultural systems, which is important for agricultural sustainability. This can be further developed to assess the carbon footprint in agricultural systems.

Soybean Yield and Nutrition Grown on the Straw of Grain Sorghum Inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense and Intercropped with BRS Paiaguás Grass.

The adoption of diversified agricultural systems that employ integrated cultural practices appears to be the way to sustainably intensify tropical agriculture. Our objectives were to evaluate the dry matter (DM) accumulation of sorghum inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense, with or without a nitrogen fertilization split, intercropped with palisade grass (Urochloa brizantha cv. BRS Paiaguás), and how these practices influenced the nutrition and development of soybean in succession. The design was a randomized complete block in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial, consisting of sorghum monoculture cropped or intercropped with palisade grass, sorghum either inoculated or not with A. brasilense, and nitrogen applied at 120 kg ha-1 N only at sowing, only at topdressing, or split-30% at sowing and 70% at topdressing at the beginning of the panicle initiation stage. The residual impacts of these treatments on the following soybean crop were also evaluated. Higher DM yield occurred in sorghum inoculated with A. brasilense, however, this result varied by year. The sorghum-palisade grass intercrop produced a higher amount of straw than sorghum monoculture. The nutrition of soybean was adequate regardless of treatments, but grain yield was higher when the sorghum residue was inoculated. The inoculation of A. brasilense in sorghum intercropped with palisade grass increased yield. The nutrition of soybean was adequate regardless of the treatments, while grain yield was higher on the inoculated sorghum residues. The inoculation of A. brasilense in sorghum intercropped with palisade grass increased DM yield. The intercropping increased the production of biomass for animal grazing and DM for soil coverage. The inoculation of sorghum by A. brasilense and its intercropping with palisade grass contributed to higher soybean yield in succession.

Implications for management of wireworms: insect pest suppressiveness of soils with plant functional diversity

Plant species diversity in agricultural systems has been shown to provide multiple ecological and agronomic benefits. How it affects the soil microbial communities, especially the guild of entomopathogens capable of controlling insect pests, has not been studied. We used the set-up of the “Experimentation in Ecosystem Research”, at Jena, Germany, to study the role of plant species diversity in facilitating insect pest suppressiveness in soils via entomopathogens such as insect-killing fungi (EPF) and nematodes (EPN). The aim was to gain insights for improving the natural control of wireworms and other pests by supporting the levels of pest antagonistic organisms in the soil. Soils were sampled from plots with a fixed number (from zero to 16) of plant species from different functional groups. Samples were baited with mealworm Tenebrio molitor larvae and the mortality (k-factor) was determined. A supplementary study was conducted to relate the findings to a soil pest, wireworm (Agriotes sp.), using potting soil and a high and low dose of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes. Field-collected wireworms were subjected additionally to a maximum challenge test, using a Metarhizium strain naturally occurring in the soil from which the wireworm larvae were collected. Our results showed that the increase in the number of plant species at the growing site can significantly increase the killing power (k-factor) of the soil. Plots with legumes had significantly higher k-values than plots without. EPF occurred significantly more often in plots with legumes than in plots without. Wireworms survived entomopathogen treatments where all mealworms died, but developed mycosis in the maximum challenge test. These findings need to be incorporated into cropping system design as a component in maximizing ecosystem services via ecostacking.