Rural Livelihood Diversification Research Articles

Land Access, Livelihood Diversification and Migration of Rural Youth in Sri Lanka

Rural livelihood diversification and youth migration have potential impacts on Sri Lankan agricultural sector. Therefore, this study was designed to assess the impact of land access on rural youths’ choice of livelihood and their choice of migration. A nationally representative sample of rural youth was isolated and a multinomial logit model under random utility framework was estimated to assess the livelihood diversification. A probit model of migration outcome was estimated to assess the rural youth’s choice of migration in lieu of land access. Results revealed that land access is strongly associated with the livelihood choices of agriculture and urban salaried employment of rural youth. Being a female youth makes the choice of livelihood less likely to be in agriculture. Education acts as an upward driver in choosing urban salaried employment while educated youth tend not to choose agriculture. The tendency to migrate reduces with increased access to land. Therefore, land access is a crucial factor for rural youth to choose agricultural livelihoods alongside rural youth not to be migrated.

Contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products in Rural Communities’ Livelihoods around Chilimo Forest, West Shewa, Ethiopia

In recent decades there has been growing interest in the contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for rural people livelihood improvement and poverty alleviation. However, as to the knowledge of the present researcher, limited studies have been done to analyze the role of non-timber forest products for rural livelihood diversification. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify main NTFPs used by local communities around Chilimo Forest. Furthermore, the study aimed to determine socioeconomic factors influencing collection of NTFPs in the study area. Multistage sampling techniques were used for the study. Data for the study was generated through household survey comprising of 313 respondents selected through simple random technique and substantiated by in-depth interviews of key informants, focus group discussion and field observation. Descriptive statistics and linear regression analysis were used to analyze and summarize data. The results revealed that, crop production, animal husbandry, non timber forest product and non-farm activities were the major livelihood strategies in the study area. On average, income from NTFPs accounted for 29.34% of total household income. The commonly collected NTFPs were firewood, charcoal, grasses, herbal medicine and honey. The study found that, households derived a significant portion of their income from the collection of NTFPs; however income derived from the collection of NTFPs significantly influenced with gender, family size and wealth status while age, education, marital status and distance from forest were found to have no significance association with income sourced from NTFPs. This study also revealed that, enrichment planting of the most utilized tree species, participatory forest management and setting of harvesting levels and cycles in Chilimo forest reduce impacts on plant species that are in high demand by local communities. The findings suggest that NTFPs play an important role in supporting livelihoods, and therefore provide an important safety net for households throughout the year particularly during periods of hardship. Therefore the current research would be useful in preparing an ecologically viable policy for the subsistence of forest dwellers and better management of the forest resources in Chilimo forest. Keywords: Chilimo forest, non timber forest product, rural community socio-economic factors DOI : 10.7176/JNSR/9-22-04 Publication date: November 30 th 2019

Cities and rural transformation: A spatial analysis of rural livelihoods in Ghana

Abstract Recent growth in many African countries has been accompanied by rapid urbanization, which could have major impacts on rural livelihoods. This paper examines patterns of rural livelihoods and poverty in Ghana based on the proximity of rural areas to cities of different sizes. The paper finds that many rural households in the areas close to cities have shifted their primary employment from agriculture to nonagriculture, especially in the more urbanized South. This trend strengthens over time. This appears to take place in contrast to the traditional model of rural livelihood diversification, with some family members working in agriculture and some in nonagriculture. Although cities have created market demand for agriculture, proximity to cities does not seem to influence agricultural intensification in terms of modern input use, possibly due to agricultural markets being relatively integrated in Ghana. Proximity to cities has implications for rural households being less poor and becoming middle class even after controlling for being a nonfarm household in rural areas.

Rural livelihood diversification of Dzao farmers in response to unpredictable risks associated with agriculture in Vietnamese Northern Mountains today

Vietnamese rural mountains are undergoing a significant transformation process in agriculture-based economy nowadays. A challenge facing ethnic minorities is identifying more appropriate way of life to cope with unpredictable risks associated with agriculture. This paper deals with livelihood diversification by the Dzao, an indigenous ethnic minority group in the Vietnamese Northern Mountains. One hundred and six Dzao households from 11 villages are surveyed with a systematic random sampling. The Simpson diversity index and the Average Agricultural Livelihood Diversification Index are used to measure the livelihood diversification of villages. Eighteen survey questions are developed from six determinants of livelihood diversification such as seasonality, risk strategies, labor markets, credit market failures, asset strategies and coping behavior and adaptation. The results show that livelihood diversification aligns Dzao farmers’ goals to the short-term economic feasibility and long-term sustainability. Farmers diversify their livelihood by combining livelihood strategies for agricultural intensification, agricultural extensification and migration. Diversification should range from a temporary change in the household livelihood portfolio (occasional diversification) to a deliberate attempt to optimize the household capacity taking advantage of opportunities and coping with unexpected constraints (strategic diversification).

Rural Livelihood Diversification: A Solution for Poverty in the Post‐Soviet Rural Baltic States?

AbstractThis article analyses rural livelihood diversification through a longitudinal follow‐up survey, that targets former collective farm workers in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. It argues, that between 1995 and 2010 the former collective farm workers employed three distinct livelihood diversification strategies in order to create their living. A wage‐based livelihood diversification strategy, which does not include any agricultural practices, was more common among the better‐off households. A farm‐based livelihood diversification strategy, which does not rely on salaries, was more often employed by the poor. A mixed strategy, that combines both wage income and farm activities, was used by both better‐off (above the poverty line) and poor households (below the poverty line). The paper also finds that livelihood diversification and poverty among the researched households have country specific patterns, which coincide with the general rural development in Baltic states.

Exploring Drivers of Livelihood Diversification and Its Effect on Adoption of Sustainable Land Management Practices in the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

Land degradation poses a major threat to agricultural production and food security in Ethiopia, and sustainable land management (SLM) is key in dealing with its adverse impacts. This paper examines the covariates that shape rural livelihood diversification and examines their effects on the intensity of adoption of SLM practices. Household-level data were collected in 2017 from 270 households in three drought-prone watersheds located in northwestern Ethiopia. We used the Herfindahl–Simpson diversity index to explore the extent of livelihood diversification. A stochastic dominance ordering was also employed to identify remunerative livelihood activities. A multivariate probit model was employed to estimate the probability of choosing simultaneous livelihood strategies, and an ordered probit model was estimated to examine the effect of livelihood diversification on the adoption intensity of SLM practices. In addition to mixed cropping and livestock production, the production of emerging cash crops (e.g., Acacia decurrens for charcoal, and khat) dominated the overall income generation of the majority of farmers. Stress/shock experience, extent of agricultural intensification, and agro-ecology significantly affected the probability of choosing certain livelihood strategies. Livelihood diversification at the household level was significantly associated with the dependency ratio, market distance, credit access, extension services, membership in community organizations, level of income, and livestock ownership. A greater extent of livelihood diversification had a significant negative effect on adopting a greater number of SLM practices, whereas it had a positive effect on lower SLM adoption intensity. Overall, we found evidence that having greater livelihood diversification could prompt households not to adopt more SLM practices. Livelihood initiatives that focus on increasing shock resilience, access to financial support mechanisms, improving livestock production, and providing quality extension services, while also considering agro-ecological differences, are needed. In addition, development planners should take into account the livelihood portfolios of rural households when trying to implement SLM policies and programs.

Impact of Coal Mining in Diversification of Rural Livelihoods: A Case Study in the Barjora Colliery Area of Bankura District, West Bengal

Coal mining plays a key role in developing the economic backbone of many developing countries, such as India, although on a local scale. Coal mining industries enormously influence the surrounding environments and livelihoods. An open cast coal mine severely enhances the dust particles in the local atmosphere over time and in turn, affects the fertility of the surrounding lands. Additionally, the socio-economic conditions of the local community go through a massive perturbation due to land acquisition, migration of people and insecurity of jobs. In this present work, an effort has been made to understand the effect of open cast coal mining on the diverse livelihoods of the rural community in Barjora colliery area of West Bengal. The livelihood pattern of the local community has significantly changed from pre-mining to post-mining, such as in agriculture sector, the work participation rate has reduced from 62% to 3%, and at present, about 55% people are now engaged in the mining sector. The immediate effect helped to increase the financial capacity of rural people. However, the upward socio-economic condition is not sustainable for the long-term. The discontinuity in coal extraction is also the major cause for the job insecurity and vulnerability in socio-economic life.

Diversify More or Less? Household Income Generation Strategies and Food Security in Rural Nigeria

We provide new findings on rural livelihood diversification in Nigeria, using panel data from the Living Standards Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA). To a large extent, the patterns and the implications of livelihood diversification have been analysed using cross sectional data and a narrow definition of food security in previous studies. In some cases, analysis has been conducted in the absence of shock experiences. We find that some results about the determinants of income diversification in cross sectional analysis also hold true in the panel data setting, while others are only revealed due to the panel nature of the data set. We find that the relationship between wealth and income diversification in rural Nigeria is best categorised as upward sloping with diminishing marginal effects rather than a U shape or an inverted U shape as found in previous studies. We also find that income diversification favours food accessibility, food availability, and food utilisation, and therefore resilience capacities overall. We do not find any evidence that income diversification mitigates or aggravates the impact of shocks, as shock experiences appear to negatively affect food security in spite of income diversification.

Why some rural areas decline while some others not: An overview of rural evolution in the world

Rural decline is an inevitable process as human society transforms from the agrarian to the urban-industrial economy, and further on to the knowledge economy. Through an extensive literature review, this paper aims to interpret why some rural areas decline while some others do not. The findings show that it is by the interactions between rural areas and the external environment that rural communities either grow, decline or even vanish. The paper emphasizes the necessity to improve rural communities' resilient capacity through adjusting their internal components' function and structure to survive the external changes. In this process, rural livelihood diversification, the creation of market oriented institutions and strong social capital are considered to enhance rural resilience and build up sustaining rural communities. Finally, three conditions for sustainable rural development in the knowledge economy are discussed: 1) development of new economic activities that can respond to potential urban demand; 2) local entrepreneurship that can establish and expand these new activities; and 3) social capital that can support the entrepreneurship in new activities with access to credits, labor, human capital, external markets and external knowledge for learning and innovation.

English

The review was made on determinants and challenges of livelihood diversification in Ethiopia. Different published and unpublished documents were collected through different search engines from different databases, Google scholar and Google. After thorough reading, 42 papers were used to review out of 182 papers. There are a lot of pushes and pull factors that affect rural livelihood diversification. Some determinants, which affect rural community were human, financial, social, natural, and physical capitals/assets. Lack of capital, poor infrastructures, lack of access to credit service, lack of access to market and marketing service and farmland scarcity were some of challenges that face rural household to diversify their livelihood. The major limitations of the studies were lack of consistence on terminology of livelihood diversification strategies, generalization during identification of factors affecting livelihood diversification and unable to reason out econometric model results. Therefore, further investigations should be conducted and development practitioners should pay attention to those factors affecting livelihood diversification. Key words: Determinants, diversification, livelihood, rural, strategies.

Gendered and generational tensions in increased land commercialisation: Rural livelihood diversification, changing land use, and food security in Ghana's Brong‐Ahafo region

Many smallholder farmers in Jaman North District, Brong‐Ahafo Region, Ghana are shifting from food crop production to increased cultivation of cashew, an export cash crop. This paper examines gendered and generational tensions in increased commercialisation of land, livelihood diversification, and household food security in the context of globalisation and environmental change. Using qualitative, participatory research with 60 middle‐generation men and women, young people and key stakeholders, the research found that community members valued the additional income stream. Young people and women, however, were apprehensive about the long‐term consequences for food security of allocating so much land to cashew plantations. Young, middle, and older generations were concerned about their weak bargaining position in negotiating fair prices with export companies and intermediaries. Greater integration into the global economy exposed rural actors to multiple risks and inequalities, such as the uneven effects of economic globalisation, rises in food prices, hunger and food insecurity, growing competition for land, youth outmigration and climate change. The shift towards cashew cultivation appears to be exacerbating gender and generational inequalities in access to land and food insecurity and leading to exploitation within the global agri‐food supply chain among already vulnerable rural communities in the global South. With stronger farmer associations and cooperatives, however, cashew farmers stand the chance of benefitting from greater integration into the global economy, through strengthened bargaining positions. Greater understanding is needed about the complex interactions between sustainable food systems, changing land use and gender and generational inequalities in rural spaces.

Rural Livelihood Diversification Status and Determinant Factors in Arsi, Ethiopia

The main reason for livelihood diversification could be positive or negative factors like improving existing livelihoods, as copping strategy for changing climatic conditions landlessness due to population pressure in the rural areas. Agriculture as a sole livelihood activity in Sub-Saharan African countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular, is a failed activity due to the fact that agricultural sector in this region is highly characterized by decreasing farm sizes, low levels of output per farm, and a high degree of subsistence farming. In this research socioeconomic characteristics of the household and pattern of rural livelihoods were described and the contribution of non-farm and off-farm income sources in livelihood diversification and determinant factors were analyzed. Simpson diversification index was used to estimate the diversification status and accordingly 40% of the households were medium diversifiers and around 1% was highly diversifiers. Negative binomial regression model was used to identify determinants for number of non-farm activities and double-hurdle model was used to identify factors affecting participation and amount of earnings. Crop-livestock mixed farming is dominant activity while most farmers are involving in non-farm and off-farm income generating activities like petty trade, working on others farm, skilled handcrafting and carpenter, seasonal trading on crop and livestock etc. The main negative factors for participation were crop failure due to change in climate and shortage of farmland.Some of the pull factors which are due to seek for improved livelihood were mostly determined by educational and distance to town.

Artisanal and small-scale mining and rural livelihood diversification: The case of manganese extraction in West Timor, Indonesia

This article examines the role of ASM in supporting livelihood diversification, drawing on experiences from subsistence farmers mining manganese in West Timor, Indonesia. An artisanal manganese mining boom, beginning around 2007–2008, in West Timor caused considerable concern amongst government and NGOs. However, unlike ASM gold in Indonesia, there have been no significant assessments of manganese mining to provide a foundation for understanding the impacts of this activity. This study addresses the gap in knowledge regarding the extent, practice, impacts and livelihood contribution of manganese mining in West Timor, Indonesia. The results found artisanal manganese mining to be a significant rural livelihood activity with an estimated 325,000 people actively engaged in mining over a wide area during the peak period from 2009–2011. Despite the scale of the industry, negative impacts of mining were found to be minimal. Moreover, manganese mining was shown to often complement farming practices and contribute to livelihood diversification. These findings reiterate the call for ASM to be supported by national and international rural development agendas as a valuable and legitimate rural livelihood.

Factors affecting extent of rural livelihood diversification in selected areas of Bangladesh

The study was carried out to investigate the patterns and extent of livelihood diversification in rural Bangladesh. It also identified the major factors affecting extent of livelihood diversification. The study drew a random sample of 500 rural farm households in Bangladesh through a multi-stage sampling technique. The primary data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires, and analyzed using descriptive statistics and statistical techniques. The results showed that remittance contributed the highest to the household income followed by petty business and rice farming. The estimated values of Simpson Index of Diversification (SID) showed that majority of the rural households had “medium” and “high” level diversified livelihood activities. Tobit regression analysis found that gender of the household head, household size and amount of credit had positive and significant effects; and number of migrant household member, dependency ratio, household assets, education of the household head and amount of savings had negative but significant effects on the extent of livelihood diversification. The small and medium landholding households were more likely to diversify their livelihoods compared to the functionally landless and large landholding households. The study recommended that non-farm employment opportunities should be expanded to combat poor households' vulnerability to shocks and income fluctuations. Functionally landless households should be given more attention to increase and diversify their incomes.SAARC J. Agri., 16(1): 7-21 (2018)

Diversify More or Less? Household Resilience and Food Security in Rural Nigeria

We provide new findings of rural livelihood diversification in Nigeria, using panel data from the Living Standards Measurement Study - Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA). To a large extent, the patterns and the implications of livelihood diversification have been analysed using cross sectional data and a narrow definition of food security in previous studies. In some cases, analysis has been conducted in the absence of shock experiences. We find that some results about the determinants of income diversification in cross sectional analysis also hold true in the panel data setting, while others are only revealed due to the panel nature of the data set. We find that the relationship between wealth and income diversification in rural Nigeria is best categorized as upward sloping with diminishing marginal effect rather than a U shape or an inverted U shape as found in previous studies. We also find that income diversification favours food accessibility, food availability and food utilisation, and therefore resilience capacities overall. We do not find any evidence of income diversification in mitigating or aggravating the impact of shocks, as shock experiences appear to negatively affect food security in spite of income diversification.

Determinants of Rural Households Livelihood Diversification Strategies in Kuarit District, West Gojjam Zone of, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

This study examined the existing livelihood strategies and its determinant in Kuarit District, West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. The study used primary data collected from 144 sampled respondents using semi-structured household survey questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informant interview and personal observations. A Multistage sampling technique was used to select kuarit district, the study villages and sample respondents. Descriptive statistics results revealed that more than half of sampled respondents (57.6%) combine on-farm activity with other non-farm and off-farm activities. Inferential statistics results using ANOVA and Chi-square tests showed that there is significant mean difference between groups of livelihood strategies in terms of dependency ratio of the household, total annual income, distance from the nearest market, total livestock ownership of the household, access to credit service and educational statues of the household head. Multinomial logit model results showed that access to credit service, total annual income and total family size have positive effect on choices of livelihood diversification strategies; while market distance, age, total livestock holding and dependency ratio of the household head have negative effect on choices of livelihood diversification strategies. Thus, policymakers should give due attention and incorporate those negative and positive factors in planning rural development strategies and polices.

Rural Livelihood Diversification Strategies and Household Welfare in Bhutan

This paper analyzes rural livelihood diversification strategies and their impact on household welfare using the Bhutan Living Standard Survey 2012. The multinomial estimation shows that education, asset endowment, labor availability, and sex (male/female) of the household head play a vital role in livelihood diversification into non-agricultural sectors. Propensity score matching estimates illustrate that rural households diversifying outside agriculture have higher income and lower poverty levels compared to households pursuing only farming for their livelihoods. Livelihood diversification into non-farm activities can help reduce poverty levels in the range of 6–9 per cent, suggesting the importance of livelihood diversification in reducing poverty and increasing household income in Bhutan.

Smallholder Livelihood Diversification and Income Inequality in Rural Malawi

Prior literature on rural livelihood diversification in Africa has suggested it has tended to increase inequality. Drawing on household data collected in nine Malawian villages over a decade, this paper examines the interrelationship between livelihood diversification and income inequality. Analysis of income portfolio and Gini coefficients shows that the interrelationship is highly varied and, in many cases, livelihood diversification decreases inequality. The varied situations stem from different contexts, such as proximity to a major town, entry barriers to off-farm activities, and variability of own-farm income. The highly variable situations found in rural Malawi call for a more context-specific policy intervention, rather than a nationwide single prescription.

ANALYSIS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING RURAL LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION MONG RURAL DWELLERS IN ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

This study analyzed the environmental factors affecting rural livelihood diversification in Adamawa State, Nigeria. The data used for the analysis were generated from 360 respondents, using multi-stage random sampling procedure. The analytical tools used were descriptive (frequencies and percentages) and inferential statistics (Tobit regression). The descriptive statistics were used in categorizing the respondents on the basis of their socio-economic characteristics. Tobit regression was employed to determine the environmental factors affecting livelihood diversification. The major findings were that: the frequency of natural disasters (X1) and season of the year (X5) were positive and significant for livelihood diversification at 5% level of significance. The number of natural resources (X3) available in an environment was positive and significant for livelihood diversification at 1% level of significance. The distance between state headquarters, local government headquarters and major towns (X2) and where a respondent lives was found to be not significant. Similarly, distance between markets (X4) and where a respondent lives was also found to be not significant for livelihood diversification. It was concluded that the number of natural disasters that occur and the number of natural resources available in the study area are strong factors that affect livelihood diversification. It was recommended, among others, that the prevailing environmental factors in a given area should be considered at the planning stages for any rural development or empowerment projects meant for livelihood diversification. Livelihood diversification opportunities should be made available and possible during dry season periods in the study area.

The undermining of rural labor out-migration by household strategies in China's migrant-sending areas: The case of Nanyang, Henan Province

Although migrant labor shortages have affected migrant-receiving areas in Eastern China for many years, research shows that there is still an abundance of laborers in rural China. Therefore, the dynamics that undermine the out-migration of rural laborers in migrant-sending areas is a critical factor in the pace of China's urbanization process. Public policies promulgated by the central government focus on institutional reform, such as offering urban hukou33Also known as the household registration system, the hukou assigns citizens rural status (rural or agricultural hukou) or urban status (urban or non-agricultural hukou) in de jure terms. to rural migrants. Still, the decision-making processes of rural villagers and potential migrants remain unclear. Based on a case study of 32 townships in Nanyang, and further investigation in nine migrant-sending provinces, this paper probes into the livelihood strategies of rural households, rather than accepting the current conclusions of many Western research models. Preliminary findings reveal that rural livelihood strategies are undermining further out-migration of rural laborers in migrant-sending areas in three ways: 1) income diversification strategies that reflect emerging local off-farm job opportunities; 2) peri-urbanization driven by rural hukou that rural residents find increasingly attractive compared to urban hukou; and 3) localized urbanization driven by rural industrialization, better public services and rural residents' desire to keep families intact. These findings differ from previous explanations of the coexistence of migrant labor shortages and an abundant rural labor supply. Most importantly, they suggest that opening urban hukou entitlement will not promote further rural-to-urban migration per se to the extent that is generally assumed, unless a more coordinated rural–urban development model can be achieved to change rural household livelihood diversification strategies.