Distribution Of Archaeological Sites Research Articles

When the Land Sings: Reconstructing Prehistoric Environments Using Evidence from Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology, with Examples Drawn from Fluvial Environments in the Nile and Son Valleys

Geomorphic evidence from rivers and lakes can help explain past changes in the locations of archaeological sites as well as environmental and climatic changes in their catchment areas. Examples drawn from the Blue and White Nile valleys in northeast Africa and from the Son and Belan valleys in north-central India reveal how Quaternary climatic fluctuations in the headwaters of these rivers are reflected in changes in river channel patterns downstream as well as in the type of sediment transported. Soils and sediments that contain prehistoric and historic artefacts can be analysed to show the type of environment in which the artefacts accumulated. Beds of volcanic ash may preserve former landscapes and their fossil remains and can provide a synchronous time marker against which to assess changes in the archaeological record. The pattern and tempo of past sea level fluctuations has controlled the distribution of coastal archaeological sites and helps to explain the absence of certain Holocene Neolithic sites in southeast Asia. Disturbance of archaeological sites by plants and animals, especially termites in tropical regions, can affect the stratigraphic and chronological integrity of the site.

Geoinformation analysis with the construction of a neural network model for predicting location of archaeological monuments in the landscapes of South-Eastern Altai

The article is devoted to the identification of landscape patterns of the location of archaeological sites in the South-East Altai using GIS and machine learning. The information database of archaeological sites of South-Eastern Altai was created based on literary sources, the authors' own field research. Schemes of distribution of archaeological sites according to some landscape features: absolute height; position in relation to watercourses; slopes; exposition; solar radiation intensity in June; Intensities of solar radiation for December was created on the basis of geoinformation analysis of the relief of the territory and the available archaeological data. The obtained statistical regularities of the distribution of archaeological sites in the landscapes of South-Eastern Altai were the basis for the creation and verification of the algorithm of a machine-learning model - a neural network. Based on the results, a forecast map of the location of archaeological sites was created. The greatest probability of discovering new archaeological objects could be provided by the following landscape parameters, no further than 500-600 m from the river with a slope steepness of up to 4 degrees, with high intensity and summer (June) solar radiation and with an exposure of slopes: southern, south-eastern and western. Unexplored archaeological sites in South-East Altai are most likely located along river valleys in the middle and lower reaches, at the confluence of rivers, along the periphery of intermountain basins, or on wide flat areas of above-floodplain terraces of river valleys. The data obtained make it possible to assess the contribution of landscape features to the spatial distribution of religious buildings of ancient peoples and provide opportunities for the search for new archaeological sites.

Spatiotemporal changes in early human land use during the Holocene throughout the Yangtze River Basin, China

The contribution of early human activity to the increase in atmospheric CH4 content during the middle to late-Holocene is still debated. The quantitative reconstruction of past changes in land use by early rice agriculture is a key to resolving the issue, because large uncertainties still exist in current prehistoric land use estimates, owing to a lack of direct records. In this study, we used the combination of archaeological data (the area and distribution of archaeological sites) and an improved prehistoric land use model (PLUM) to determine the spatiotemporal changes in land use by rice agriculture throughout the Yangtze River Valley, China, which was the origin and centre of the development of rice cultivation. The results indicate that the area devoted to rice agriculture increased during 10–2 ka BP, and that a significant increase occurred at ~5 ka BP accompanied by a spatial expansion from the northern part of the valley to the entire valley. However, the rice land use area decreased slightly during 4–3 ka BP but then increased after 3 ka BP. We estimate that the CH4 emissions from the rice cultivated area in the Yangtze River Valley increased from ~0.001 (±0.001) to ~1.3 (±0.6) Tg/year during 10–2 ka BP, and the resulting atmospheric CH4 concentrations increased from ~0.004 (±0.002) to ~4.1 (±2.0) ppb, which accounted for 3 (±2)–9 (±5) % of the ‘anomalous atmospheric CH4 increase’ during 5–2 ka BP.

Summer Camps Location and Distribution of Archaeological Sites in North Neuquén (Northwest Patagonia)

ABSTRACT We study the bioclimatic and landscape characteristics of summer camps of modern transhumant herders from North Neuquén to generate a distribution model of upland areas suitable for herding and project their spatial distribution throughout the Holocene. With this aim, we analyzed ethnographic, bioclimatic and landscape data using habitat suitability models. The location of different types of archaeological sites was then compared with the projected models. The results for the current data show that the bioclimatic variables have a central role in determining the location of summer camp areas, showing a better capacity of explanation than the solely use of landscape variables as altitude. The projection of the bioclimatic model into the past showed significant temporal and spatial variation, although the archaeological sites are consistently localised in the limit between annually available and summer areas. For the Late Holocene, burial and rock art sites are mainly placed in areas available annually and in areas characterised as summer camps, respectively. Our findings show the usefulness of studying the ways of life and use of space of modern transhumant herders as a valid resource to generate hypotheses or expectations about the distribution of the archaeological sites from the same region.

Evaluating the effectiveness of three spatial cluster analysis methods on Palaeolithic site location distributions in Galicia, NW Iberian Peninsula

The present paper aims to offer an evaluation of the cluster method analysis to settlement distribution of archaeological sites (k-means, DBSCAN, percolation analysis) and to show the potentiality of such methods on a regional scale. We analyse the distribution of Palaeolithic sites in Galician territory (NW Iberia) in order to identify the clustering areas and verify if these areas correspond with the traditional research zones. The results showed that the percolation analysis and, to a lesser extent, DBSCAN, worked best. We observe that the traditionally researched areas on the Galician Palaeolithic actually fit with the cluster pattern of points employing a 6–8 km threshold.

Vegetation change and human-environment interactions in the Qinghai Lake Basin, northeastern Tibetan Plateau, since the last deglaciation

The nature of the interaction between prehistoric humans and their environment, especially the vegetation, has long been of interest. The Qinghai Lake Basin in North China is well-suited to exploring the interactions between prehistoric humans and vegetation in the Tibetan Plateau, because of the comparatively dense distribution of archaeological sites and the ecologically fragile environment. Previous pollen studies of Qinghai Lake have enabled a detailed reconstruction of the regional vegetation, but they have provided relatively little information on vegetation change within the Qinghai Lake watershed. To address the issue we conducted a pollen-based vegetation reconstruction for an archaeological site (YWY), located on the southern shore of Qinghai Lake. We used high temporal-resolution pollen records from the YWY site and from Qinghai Lake, spanning the interval since the last deglaciation (15.3 kyr BP to the present) to quantitatively reconstruct changes in the local and regional vegetation using Landscape Reconstruction Algorithm models. The results show that, since the lateglacial, spruce forest grew at high altitudes in the surrounding mountains, while the lakeshore environment was occupied mainly by shrub-steppe. From the lateglacial to the middle Holocene, coniferous woodland began to expand downslope and reached the YWY site at ∼ 7.1 kyr BP. The living environment of the local small groups of Paleolithic-Epipaleolithic humans (during 15.3–13.1 kyr BP and 9–6.4 kyr BP) changed from shrub-steppe to coniferous forest–steppe. The pollen record shows no evidence of pronounced changes in the vegetation community corresponding to human activity. However, based on a comparison of the local and regional vegetation reconstructions, low values of biodiversity and a significant increase in two indicators of vegetation degradation, Chenopodiaceae and Rosaceae, suggest that prehistoric hunters-gatherers likely disturbed the local vegetation during ∼ 9.0–6.4 kyr BP. Our findings are a preliminary attempt to study human-environment interactions at Paleolithic-Epipaleolithic sites in the region, and they contribute to ongoing environmental archaeology research in the Tibetan Plateau.

A Maxent Predictive Model for Hunter-Gatherer Sites in the Southern Pampas, Argentina

The following paper presents the results of a Species Distribution Model (SDM) for grassland hunter-gatherer archaeology sites in the southern Pampas region of Argentina. The goal of this exploratory model is to provide a complementary survey model for the detection of archaeological sites in this region, which will also help characterize and discuss site locations and regional distribution patterns of hunter-gatherer occupations. Even in this largely homogenous and highly dynamic landscape, SDMs can help guide archaeological surveys by identifying some environmental variables affecting hunter-gatherer decisions, and can provide insights into mobility and archaeological settlement patterns. Among the available tools for SDM, Maximum Entropy Modeling (Maxent) is one of the most widely used approaches in archaeological predictive modelling. After controlling for bias and adjustment of several modifiable parameters, the Maxent software provided a potentially effective predictive model to direct future archaeological survey and heritage management projects. The results of this research suggest that watercourses and slope were the key environmental factors influencing the distribution of hunter-gatherer archaeological sites in the southern Pampas region.

Sedimentary Pediastrum record of middle–late Holocene temperature change and its impacts on early human culture in the desert-oasis area of northwestern China

Although the pattern of Holocene temperature variations in central Asia is complex, it is clear that temperature played a fundamental role in influencing humidity conditions and regional human activity. We reconstructed temperature changes using Pediastrum species data, verified by clumped isotopes (Δ47), in the carbonates of sediment cores recovered from Bosten Lake in Xinjiang Province, northwestern China. Combined with archaeological data, the results indicate an unusually warm climatic interval that peaked at ∼4.7–4.3 kyr and promoted human occupation of the Altai Mountains. The climate cooled during 4.2–4.1 kyr and 3.6–3.5 kyr, as indicated by the decrease or absence of Pediastrum simplex. These cold events may have triggered the southward human migration out of the Altai region, resulting in the widespread distribution of archaeological sites at lower latitudes, in the Tienshan Mountains, and in the desert-oasis areas of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang. Our data support the notion that a series of cultural transitions across the monsoonal Loess Plateau and Tibetan Plateau of China may have been linked to temperature changes during the middle to late Holocene.

The Construction and Formation Process of Walled Cities' Geographical Information during the Qin-Han Period: With a focus on the distribution of archeological city sites and tombs in northwest regions

The Construction and Formation Process of Walled Cities' Geographical Information during the Qin-Han Period: With a focus on the distribution of archeological city sites and tombs in northwest regions

Upper Palaeolithic sites and where to find them: A predictive modelling approach to assess site expectancy in the Southern Levant

Site preservation and associated terrain characteristics are among the major agents controlling the spatial distribution and discoverability of late Quaternary archaeological sites. However, site expectancy in extensive areas can be determined using a combination of geoarchaeological investigation and digital spatial analysis. In that sense a prediction model, respectively the result of a Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), is presented to highlight areas with a high potential to contain Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Eastern Mediterranean and bordering arid margins. Based on detailed on-site analysis in the Wadi Sabra region, with its many sites and the location of other well-known sites in the southern Levant, eight individual parameters, aspect (cardinal point), elevation, geomorphology, hydrogeology, drainage network, slope inclination, vegetation, and a terrain ruggedness index (TRI) are evaluated and tested for significance. The statistical results confirm a significant divergence of the spatial distribution of Upper Palaeolithic sites from the distribution of natural terrain position factors. This allows for a definition of parameter classes with a high site expectancy and their use in a predictive model. For the results map, the site expectancy factors determined in this way were intersected with each other, thus enabling a distinction between areas with a high and low site occurrence probability. The accuracy of the presented result is assessed by the implementation of another MCDA pass based on an independent dataset of archaeological survey sites and compared to the original. Both datasets complement each other and can show the potential for further investigations with more numerous site datasets as well as more detailed spatial information. A local classification based on high-resolution elevation information and field data is evaluated for the Wadi Sabra, Southern Jordan, which can confirm yet further specify the result from the MCDA.

G-STC-M Spatio-Temporal Analysis Method for Archaeological Sites

Based on the significant hotspots analysis method (Getis-Ord Gi* significance statistics), space-time cube model (STC) and the Mann–Kendall trend test method, this paper proposes a G-STC-M spatio-temporal analysis method based on Archaeological Sites. This method can integrate spatio-temporal data variable analysis and the space-time cube model to explore the spatio-temporal distribution of Archaeological Sites. The G-STC-M method was used to conduct time slice analysis on the data of Archaeological Sites in the study area, and the spatio-temporal variation characteristics of Archaeological Sites in East China from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty were discussed. The distribution of Archaeological Sites has temporal hotspots and spatial hotspots. Temporally, the distribution of Archaeological Sites showed a gradual increasing trend, and the number of Archaeological Sites reached the maximum in the Qing Dynasty. Spatially, the hotspots of Archaeological Sites are mainly distributed in Jiangsu (30°~33° N, 118°~121° E) and Anhui (29°~31° N, 117°~119° E) and the central region of Zhejiang (28°~31° N, 118°~121° E). Temporally and spatially, the distribution of Archaeological Sites is mainly centered in Shanghai (30°~32° N, 121°~122° E), spreading to the southern region.

Geophyte field processing, storage, and women’s decision-making in hunter-gatherer societies: An archaeological case study from western North America

Geophytes are a critical food staple for many hunter-gatherer societies across the world. Despite recognition of their importance in the archaeological record, geophyte handling has often been portrayed in simplistic terms and the important processing, storage, and social components of their handling have not been fully realized. We present a case study from the Southern Plateau of western North America that addresses these issues. We begin by offering a framework for processing and storage that highlights storage diversity and the front-back loaded nature and flexibility of geophytes. Next, we present a geophyte field processing model to predict when field versus central place processing would occur, which provides important insights into archaeological site and artifact distributions. We then turn to the social dynamics of geophyte handling, suggesting that women were major producers and drivers of geophyte-related economies who could buffer the costs of intensive field processing strategies through bulk processing and by engaging family groups in geophyte-related activities. These logistical strategies helped to increase geophyte utility and offset transport costs and the opportunity cost that geophyte handling presented to childcare. We conclude with archaeological predictions for geophyte processing and storage signatures among societies using pedestrian, equestrian, and canoe modes of transportation.

Holocene Environmental Archaeology of the Yangtze River Valley in China: A Review

The Yangtze River Valley is an important economic region and one of the cradles of human civilization. It is also the site of frequent floods, droughts, and other natural disasters. Conducting Holocene environmental archaeology research in this region is of great importance when studying the evolution of the relationship between humans and the environment and the interactive effects humans had on the environment from 10.0 to 3.0 ka BP, for which no written records exist. This review provides a comprehensive summary of materials that have been published over the past several decades concerning Holocene environmental archaeology in the Yangtze River Valley, to further understand large-scale regional Holocene environmental and cultural interaction within this area. The results show that: (1) in recent years, Holocene envi-ronmental archaeology research in the Yangtze River Valley has primarily taken paleoflood and sea-level change stratigraphical events to be the foundational threads for study. This began with research on the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological sites, typical archaeological site stratigraphy, and research on background features concerning environmental evolution recorded by the regional natural sedimentary strata. (2) Significant progress has been made at the upper, middle, and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, indicating that Holocene environmental ar-chaeology research along the Yangtze River Valley is deepening and broadening. (3) Dramatic changes to Neolithic cultures that occurred approximately 4.0 ka BP were influenced by climate change and associated consequences, although the impacts differed on the various Neolithic cultures in the Yangtze River Valley. Local topography, regional climate, and varying survival strategies may have contributed to these differences. (4) Newly-published research pays particular attention to the sedimentary records of the past with resolutions as high as one year to several months, the degree to which humans altered the quality of their natural environment, and human adjustments to settlement and subsistence practices during periods of Holocene climate change. The application of technologies such as remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and molecular biological analysis are also gradually being extended into the research field of Holocene environmental archaeology in the Yangtze River Valley.

‘We hunt to share’: social dynamics and very large mammal butchery during the Oldowan–Acheulean transition

ABSTRACT The Early Pleistocene (2.58–0.78 Ma) was a period of major evolutionary changes in the hominin lineage. The progressive consolidation of bipedal locomotion, alongside increases in cranial capacity and behavioural flexibility, allowed early Homo to exploit an increasing diversity of resources and environmental settings within the changing landscapes of East Africa and beyond. These complex processes were not necessarily linear or spatially uniform, given the technological diversity documented, particularly during the Oldowan–Acheulean transition. In this paper, we argue that human populations experienced a considerable demographic expansion from c.1.7–1.5 Ma onwards, expressed in the number, size, density, and distribution of archaeological sites. These patterns resulted from the interplay of high-yielding animal resource exploitation strategies, technological investment, prosocial behaviours as well as increasingly structured land use patterns. A more consolidated hominin demographic structure led to the extinction of large sympatric carnivore species, while larger group sizes would have led to more successful Out-of-Africa dispersals.

Spatial analysis of Archaeological and historical sites and their relationship with the Natural and Human Factors case study: Al Baha region

هدف هذا البحث إلى دراسة التوزيع الجغرافي للمواقع الأثرية والتاريخية في منطقة الباحة، وتحليل العلاقات المكانية بينها وبين باقي الظواهر الجغرافية والبشرية في المنطقة، مما يحقق لنا رؤية شاملة للوضع الراهن لهذه المواقع الأثرية والتاريخية، والسعي لتنمية الوعي بأهميتها السياحية لمنطقة الباحة. ولتحقيق أهداف البحث تم استخدام منهج التحليل المكاني في بيئة نظم المعلومات الجغرافية لقياس العلاقات المكانية بين الظاهرات في منطقة الدراسة من خلال ما تحتويه هذه التقنية من أدوات إحصاء وتحليل مكاني متعددة كما تم اعتماد الأسلوب الكارتوجرافى في التمثيل الخرائطي لعرض ورسم الخرائط باستخدام برنامج نظم المعلومات الجغرافية ArcGIS 10.6. وتوصلت الدراسة إلى حصر المواقع الأثرية والتاريخية في منطقة الباحة الذي بلغ حوالي 129 موقعاً توزعت بين 7 محافظات، كان توزيعها النسبي متباينا جدا بين الجزء الغربي والجزء الشرقي من المنطقة (حوالي 97 موقعا يقع شرق السروات و32 موقعاً غربها أي بنسبة توزيع 75% من المواقع في الشرق و25% من المواقع غرب السروات) في ارتباط وثيق بمظاهر السطح والموارد المائية والثروات المعدنية وطرق التجارة القديمة. وكان توزيع المواقع الأثرية والتاريخية في منطقة الباحة توزيعا متقاربا في مجمله (معامل صلة الجوار=0.63) وذلك لانحصار وصغر مساحات السهول الصالحة للاستيطان وطغيان المرتفعات شديدة الانحدار والصحراء الواسعة على مساحة منطقة الباحة. أما كثافة تركز المواقع الأثرية والتاريخية فقد كانت مرتفعة في الجزء الشرقي في حين انخفضت في الجزء الغربي من منطقة الدراسة. وأوصت الدراسة بأهمية استخدام تطبيقات نظم المعلومات الجغرافية للاستفادة منها في دراسة البعد المكاني للمواقع الأثرية والتاريخية ومدى التداخل المكاني بينها وبين مختلف الظواهر الطبيعية والبشرية في منطقة الدراسة. استغلال مخرجات التحليل المكاني في إعداد أطلس أثري يحتوي على خرائط ورسوم بيانية توضيحية وصور للمعالم والأماكن الأثرية في المنطقة لغرض استغلال وتسويق هذه الموارد الكامنة سياحيا. تشجيع الدراسات والأبحاث التي تسهم في إبراز أهمية المواقع الأثرية والتاريخية والتشجع على استغلالها في محاولة لدمج معمق لمنطقة الدراسة في المجالات السياحية.

Hominin site distributions and behaviours across the Mid-Pleistocene climate transition in China

Knowledge about the Early and Middle Pleistocene hominin record of China is steadily increasing owing to the on-going implementation of palaeoanthropological surveys and excavations. Yet, relatively little attention has been paid to the effects of climate variability on hominin populations in China and its influence on archaeological site distributions and hominin behaviours. The Mid-Pleistocene climate transition (MPT), dating to between ∼1.2–0.7 Ma in Eastern Asia, is characterized by significant changes in the length and intensity of glacial-interglacial cycles and in monsoon intensity and terrestrial conditions, which have been implicated in influencing the occupation history of basins within China. Here, the MPT is examined relative to archaeological site distributions across China to determine potential long-term geographic and behavioural effects on hominin populations before, during and after this critical period. Changes in the geographic distribution of hominins are demonstrated across the MPT, with significant shifts in the number of sites in high and low latitudes, likely as a response to changing ecosystems. Technological innovations, including the development of Large Cutting Tools, occur in the MPT and afterwards, possibly a response to the formation of open habitats in South China. Geographic and behavioural shifts in the hominin record challenge traditional views about the long-term, conservative nature of the biological and cultural evolution of hominins in Eastern Asia, and instead demonstrate dynamic responses of populations to ecosystem changes across the Early and Middle Pleistocene.

Human existence potential in Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum

Archaeological records indicate that many regions in Europe remained unoccupied by hunter-gatherers during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), probably due to the harsh climatic conditions and glacial extent. In the populated regions of southwestern Europe, a new technocomplex, the Solutrean, is known to have emerged among hunter-gatherers but did not reach the regions east of 10°E. To better understand human occupation of Europe during the LGM, Human Existence Potential (HEP) is presented, which expresses the suitability of a region with given environmental conditions for habitation by hunter-gatherers. We estimate the HEP based on archaeological site locations and reconstructed climate/environment data. By geostatistically upscaling archaeological site distributions into Core Areas, we distinguish areas that were likely to have been continuously occupied by hunter-gatherers from areas intermittently occupied. The use of Core Areas in the model improves the description of regions of continuous human presence, removing some of the previously observed mismatches between reconstructions and archaeological records. Using HEP, important anthropological and archaeological questions can be studied. Environmental Human Catchment (EHC) and Best Potential Path (BPP) are applied to quantify an area of HEP attraction and the lowest-cost path between two areas, respectively. With these tools, we characterize the potential connections between the Core Areas, the environmental barriers and possible social and technological interactions. A clear difference in environmental adaptation is found between the populations in western and eastern Europe, with a significant climate barrier preventing the propagation of the Solutrean to eastern Europe.

Detecting Associations between Archaeological Site Distributions and Landscape Features: A Monte Carlo Simulation Approach for the R Environment

Detecting association between archaeological sites and physical landscape elements like geological deposits, vegetation, drainage networks, or areas of modern disturbance like mines or quarries is a key goal of archaeological projects. This goal is complicated by the incomplete nature of the archaeological record, the high degree of uncertainty of typical point distribution patterns, and, in the case of deeply buried archaeological sites, the absence of reliable information about the ancient landscape itself. Standard statistical approaches may not be applicable (e.g., X2 test) or are difficult to apply correctly (regression analysis). Monte Carlo simulation, devised in the late 1940s by mathematical physicists, offers a way to approach this problem. In this paper, we apply a Monte Carlo approach to test for association between Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites in Hampshire and Sussex, UK, and quarries recorded on historical maps. We code our approach in the popular ‘R’ software environment, describing our methods step-by-step and providing complete scripts so others can apply our method to their own cases. Association between sites and quarries is clearly shown. We suggest ways to develop the approach further, e.g., for detecting associations between sites or artefacts and remotely-sensed deposits or features, e.g., from aerial photographs or geophysical survey.

Cultural spaces and climate change: Modeling Holocene archaeological settlement patterns on the coastal plain of the southeastern United States

Ideal free distribution (IFD) models generally predict that populations, including human populations, will distribute themselves across the landscape such that resource access is optimized. However, links between ecology and human responses to it are not always straightforward, especially during periods of climate change when people often act based on incomplete information and for reasons not connected directly to ecological output. Here, we analyze archaeological site distribution across the coastal plains of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida to test the roles that both ecology and knowledge of a region, as estimated based on past site occupations, played in human decision making during the Middle and Late Archaic periods. These periods correlate to substantial climatic, environmental and ecological change during the middle Holocene and beginning of the late Holocene. We find that IFD models that include both ecological variables and past landscape use fit both cultural periods, but to different degrees.

Lake Elji and a geological perspective on the evolution of Petra, Jordan

The draining of the herein introduced ancient Lake Elji, and the subsequent erosion of its lacustrine sediments, were necessary precursors to the Late Epipalaeolithic (Natufian) and later settlement of Petra. This study investigates this geological history and relates it to human occupation of the broader region. Widespread carbonates consisting of algal mat deposits, beach rocks, and rhizoliths are consistently present at the 1060 m contour line of what is believed to be the shoreline of Lake Elji in the Petra basin. Well sorted siliciclastic fluvio-lacustrine sediments at lower elevations and human settlement patterns all indicate that a standing body of water once existed in the area. Stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen, as well as the fossil assemblages and the textures of the carbonate deposits, suggest that the body of water was an open lake with regular outflows. A sill has been identified at Ras Btahi, indicating a southward outflow direction, as opposed to the current drainage pattern towards the west. The lack of a basin closure towards the west at the time, as evidenced by thick, low energy sediment accumulations, suggest that tectonic movements were responsible for breaching the lake and establishing the current hydrological pattern. Results obtained from the optical stimulated luminiscence (OSL) in the palaeolake sediments indicate that the basin was closed from at least 100 Ka up to approximately 9 Ky. This timeline is also supported by the distribution of archaeological sites in the area and a previously documented massive erosional event at the end of this period. Subsequent gradual denudation of the basin sediments allowed for the settlement in the center of Petra during the Early Nabatean period.