Avoidance Distance Research Articles

Young Adults’ Trait Affection Given and Received as Functions of Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultures and National Origin

Based on the work conducted by trait psychologists, this cross-cultural investigation sought to examine young adults’ trait affection given and trait affection received in the U.S., Russia, and Slovakia as functions of (a) Hofstede’s four primary dimensions of national cultures (i.e. masculinity–femininity, individualism–collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance), and (b) national origin. Undergraduate students (N = 558) from the U.S. (n = 214), Russia (n = 169), and Slovakia (n = 210) completed a questionnaire in their native languages. The results of regression analyses and analyses of variances supported the notion that the four dimensions of national cultures influence people’s trait-like attributes and therefore also result in significant differences among the three countries examined in this investigation.

Culture and externally financed firm growth

In this paper, we provide the first firm-level evidence on the importance of culture, and its interdependence with legal (formal) institutions in affecting firms' use of external financing to fund growth. We conjecture that culture, after controlling for its macro-economic impact through political and legal institutions, has a direct micro-economic effect on firm-level growth. Using an international sample of 42,341 firms from 56 countries over the period 1989 to 2012, we find support for our hypothesis that cultural dimensions of individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and power distance affect firm's ability to overcome financial constraints, with individualism exhibiting a strong robust impact compared to the other dimensions. We further find that the link between individualism and growth is stronger in countries with low access to finance, suggesting that firms' ability to overcome financial constraints is more affected by individualism when access to finance is lower.

The memory enhancement effect of Kai Xin San on cognitive deficit induced by simulated weightlessness in rats

Ethnopharmacological relevanceIt is vital for astronauts to develop effective countermeasures to prevent their decline of cognitive performance in microgravity to make space-flight missions successful. The traditional Chinese herbal formula Kai Xin San (KXS) has been used to treat amnesia for thousands years. It is a traditional complex prescription comprising of ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), hoelen (Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf), polygala (Polygala tenaifolia Willd), and acorus (Acorus tatarinowii Schott). Previous study showed KXS could improve CMS-induced memory impairment in rats. Material and methodsIn this paper, a unique environmental factor—microgravity (weightlessness) was simulated as hindlimb suspension (HLS) by tail in rats for two weeks as the HLS animal model. The KXS at the doses of 0.3 or 0.6g/kg p.o. daily was administrated to HLS rats for two weeks at the same time of HLS, the memory behavior tests were investigated with Morris water maze (MWM) and Shuttle Box (SB) test. The levels of ROS, 8-OHdG and 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) in the serum, and AChE and ChAT activity in the brain of rats were determined by ELISA or biochemical analysis. ResultsAfter HLS for two weeks, the escape latency and the swimming distance were significantly increased in the MWM test in rats in the HLS group, compared with control group. The percent of swimming distance in target quadrant and the number of target crossing was significantly decreased in rats in the HLS group compared with the control group. Performance in the SB test showed, the numbers and the distance of active avoidance was decreased from day 4 to day 7, the time spent in electric area was increased in rats in the HLS group compared with the control group.Administration of KXS 0.3 or 0.6g/kg to the HLS rats for two weeks significantly reduced the escape latency and the swimming distance, increased the percentage of swimming distance in target quadrant and the number of target crossings (P<0.01, compared with the HLS group) in the MWM test. Similar treatment with KXS increased the numbers and the distance of active avoidance (P<0.01, compared with the HLS group) and reduced the time spent in electric area after training 3 days in the SB test (P<0.01, compared with the HLS group).The HLS induced the increase of the ROS, 8-OHdG and 3-NT in the serum of rats, but has little influence on the AChE, ChAT activity in the brain. Only the AChE activity in the cortex and the ChAT activity in the hippocampus had some changes in rats in the HLS model group.After administration of KXS 0.6g/kg for two weeks, the abnormal levels of ROS, 8-OHdG, 3-NT were found reversed in the serum of rats (P<0.05, compared with HLS model group). And KXS 0.3g/kg was found reversed the increased AChE activity in the cortex. ConclusionsExperimental results from this study show that KXS may improve memory deficiency induced by HLS, its mechanisms are major related to antioxidant activities, rather than the central cholinergic system.

A prospective exploration of farm, farmer, and animal characteristics in human-animal relationships: An epidemiological survey

Human-animal relationships are essential for dairy farming. They affect work comfort and efficiency, as well as milk production. A poor human-animal relationship can result in stress and accidents to both animals and caretakers and needs to be improved. However, many studies have demonstrated the multifactoriality of these relationships. We aimed at assessing the relative importance of the various factors expected to be associated with poor human-animal relationships. On 118 dairy farms, we applied a standardized avoidance distance test to cows at the feeding rack. The sample of farms covered a wide range of situations: lowland versus highland, small versus medium size farms, cubicles versus deep-bedded systems, milking parlor versus automatic milking systems, and Holstein versus Montbéliarde breeds. We used Poisson regression to analyze the links between the number of cows that accepted being touched, and farm characteristics, animals, management, and farmers’ attitudes. A multivariate analysis yielded a final model that explained 32.7% of the variability between farms. Calving conditions (“Main calving location” and “Cleaning or adding litter after calving”) accounted for a significant part of the variability observed (respectively 25.8 and 13.6% of variability explained by the model, SSB). Fewer cows accepted being touched on farms where the main calving location was in the barn, and where farmers cleaned or added litter after calving. The proportion of cows that accepted being touched increased with the proportion of lean cows in the herd (18.8%), with worker/cow ratio on the farm (11.7%), when farmers considered “health” or “human-cow relationships” as most important issues for farm success (10.4%), and with farmers’ years of experience (10.8%). Farmers with more negative behavioral attitudes toward cows had a lower proportion of cows that accepted being touched (8.9%). In conclusion, the human-animal relationship was not found to be associated with farm characteristics (e.g., housing or milking system) but varied with farmers’ attitudes and management. We confirm that cows’ fear of people is linked to negative attitudes displayed by caretakers toward cows, and is reduced in farms where several caretakers are present. Our study also suggests further exploring the key role of factors linked to calving conditions, as cows are more likely to be afraid of people when disturbed at calving.

Validity and feasibility of Human-Animal Relationship tests for on-farm welfare assessment in dairy goats

This study aims at establishing suitable tests to measure the quality of the Human-Animal Relationship (HAR) in dairy goats for on-farm welfare assessment protocols by evaluating the predictive validity of different categories of HAR tests and their feasibility in on-farm condition. Twelve commercial dairy farms in Northern Italy were selected and classified as “good” (n=6) and “poor” (n=6) HAR on the basis of reports from a technical advisor. Some variables were tested to measure the HAR: sneezing – the number of alert sounds; voluntary approach (VA) test – in a stationary situation, the latency to the first contact by goat and the% of goats that entered in contact with the test person and within a 1.5m radius around her were recorded, both continuously and at scan sample intervals; avoidance distance (AD) test – the avoidance distance from a moving and approaching person and the% of tested goats, of contacts with the test person followed by withdrawal or of acceptances of gentle stroke were recorded. The feasibility of each test was evaluated based on costs, time consumption, safety and training requirement. Sneezes were rarely and random expressed, so they do not seem suitable to be included in a protocol. Both Principal Component Analysis and One-way ANOVA confirmed the predictive validity of most of the variables, which were able to discriminate between “good” and “poor” HAR farms. Latency to first contact resulted valid (P=0.01) and a high feasibility was reported. The indicator was easy to be recorded and the VA test could be stopped immediately after the first contact, saving time. Variables from the AD test resulted valid (% tested goats: P=0.006; AD mean: P=0.016; % contacts: P=0.006; % acceptance: P=0.003), although they were more time consuming or required a more specific training compared to latency to first contact. The correlation among variables seemed to support also a convergent validity of the tests used. The investigation pinpointed promising behavioural tests to be included into on-farm welfare assessment protocols in dairy goats. Taking into account species, test results and feasibility considerations, we suggest the inclusion of latency to the first contact with the test person into on-farm welfare assessment protocols. However, these results should be further tested in a larger number of farms of different dimensions, to overcome the limitations of this study due to the small sample size and to check the effect of farm size.

Influences on the avoidance and approach behaviour of dairy goats towards an unfamiliar human—An on-farm study

The human-animal relationship (HAR) is an important factor for successful animal husbandry and animal welfare. Thus, the HAR is included in on-farm assessments to evaluate overall welfare. For dairy goats, validated tests to assess the HAR are lacking. The aim of the present study was to evaluate several tests of the HAR for on-farm assessment regarding validity and feasibility. We visited 43 dairy farms in Austria and Germany and conducted one test with a stationary human (approach test in the pen—APP) and three tests with a moving human (avoidance test at the feed barrier—AvF, avoidance distance test at the feeding place—ADF, avoidance test in the pen—AvP). In addition, milker behaviour towards goats was observed, stockpeople’s attitudes towards interacting with goats were assessed via questionnaire and information was recorded about other potential influencing factors such as management, herd and housing characteristics. Convergent validity was investigated by (1) inter-test associations using a principal components analysis (PCA) and (2) by analysing associations of tests with potential influencing factors by use of multiple linear regression. Feasibility is described in terms of practicability of the tests in different farm designs and of time requirements. Variation between farms was high in all four tests. PCA revealed three factors including (1) all but one variable of the tests with a moving human, (2) all and only variables of the approach test, and (3) variables of AvF, AvP and APP where animals accepted touch or approached (nearly) to touch. Regression analyses revealed that the percentage of negative milker interactions (NegProportion) was the predominant influencing factor, being a predictor in seven of nine models: The higher NegProportion, the more avoidance and the less approach behaviour towards the unfamiliar test person were observed in all four tests (P≤0.001 in 4 models, P≤0.01 in one, P≤0.05 in one and P=0.16 in one model with a beta of |0.3| to |0.8|). Measures of AvF and AvP were explained best by human behaviour and were hardly influenced by confounding factors with an explained variance up to 80%. While feasibility of AvP was high, AvF and ADF could not be performed on about 30% of the farms due to unsuitable feeding equipment. However, AvF can be modified to improve feasibility. Avoidance tests at the feeding place and in the pen can validly assess the human-animal relationship on dairy goat farms as shown by the strength of inter-test associations and of the association with human-animal contact variables. A combination of avoidance tests at the feeding barrier and in the pen is recommended.

Gentle interactions decrease the fear of humans in dairy heifers independently of early experience of stroking

The relationship of farmed animals with humans has important implications for animal welfare and productivity. To investigate the short- and long-term effect of gentle interactions (stroking, talking in a gentle voice) during different life stages on the fear of humans, we tested heifers that had or had not experienced gentle interactions as calves in a previous experiment on a large commercial farm. We investigated a) whether the reduction in calves’ avoidance distance caused by gentle interactions was still detectable one year later, b) whether a second treatment with gentle interactions would be effective in reducing the avoidance distance of heifers and c) whether there were cumulative effects of the two treatment phases. We provided a total of 42min of voluntary gentle interactions to 45 of 79 heifers, resulting in a cross-over design with four groups that had been stroked as calves; or as heifers; or both as calves and heifers; or not at all. We measured the avoidance distance before, 1day after and 5 weeks after the treatment phase.There was no significant difference between heifers stroked or not stroked as calves in the avoidance distance measured before the treatment. All heifers that were stroked had an avoidance distance of 0cm towards the experimenter after the treatment, and the decrease in avoidance distance was significantly higher than in non-stroked heifers (p<0.001). The effect was persistent for at least 5 weeks and extended to an experimenter who was blind to the treatment (p=0.03). Most heifers accepted the treatment for most of the time and stretched their necks while being stroked, which is a behavioural indicator of pleasure.The experience of gentle interactions as calves did not have a long-term effect on their avoidance distance before the treatment. Regular positive interactions may be necessary to maintain a good relationship with humans. Heifers seemed to perceive the treatment as pleasurable and displayed a very strong and consistent reduction in avoidance distance, indicating reduced fear of humans and increased confidence. Gentle tactile and vocal interactions may be a suitable method to improve heifers’ relationship with humans and their quality of life.

Welfare Conditions of Donkeys in Europe: Initial Outcomes from On-Farm Assessment.

Simple SummaryThis paper aims to present the first outcomes of data collected using the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys in 20 EU donkey facilities. Three assessors evaluated 278 donkeys. The authors found recurrent issues: tendency to obesity, lack of hoof care and irregular positive interactions with humans. The protocol proved to be applicable in different management conditions and for donkeys of different attitude.This paper is a baseline study to present the initial outcomes of data collected in a sample of EU donkey farms using the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for donkeys, comprehensive of 22 valid, reliable and feasible animal-based indicators. A total of 20 donkey facilities (N = 12 in Italy and N = 8 in United Kingdom) were visited and 278 donkeys of different breed, aged 2–45 years, were assessed. Three assessors underwent a common training period to learn how to perform and score all the indicators included in the protocol. Data was collected using digitalized systems and downloaded to a database. A descriptive statistic for each welfare indicator was calculated. The authors found recurrent issues: 25% of donkeys were moderately over weight; although most of the assessed animals had good quality hoof care, 15.16% of them presented some signs of neglect, such as overgrowth and/or incorrect trimming; 18.05% of donkeys showed an avoidance reaction to an approaching human in the avoidance distance test. The protocol has proven to be applicable in different management conditions and for donkeys of different attitude.

Crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach

Human movement in a crowd can be considered as complex and unpredictable, and accordingly large scale video observation studies based on a conceptual behaviour framework were used to characterise individual movements and behaviours. The conceptual behaviours were free movement (moving through and move-stop-move), same direction movement (queuing and competitive) and opposite direction movement (avoiding and passing through). Movement in crowds was modelled and simulated using an agent-based method using the gaming software Dark BASIC Professional. The agents (individuals) were given parameters of personal objective, visual perception, speed of movement, personal space and avoidance angle or distance within different crowd densities. Two case studies including a multi-mode transportation system layout and a bottleneck/non-bottleneck evacuation are presented.

Crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach

Human movement in a crowd can be considered as complex and unpredictable, and accordingly large scale video observation studies based on a conceptual behaviour framework were used to characterise individual movements and behaviours. The conceptual behaviours were free movement (moving through and move-stop-move), same direction movement (queuing and competitive) and opposite direction movement (avoiding and passing through). Movement in crowds was modelled and simulated using an agent-based method using the gaming software Dark BASIC Professional. The agents (individuals) were given parameters of personal objective, visual perception, speed of movement, personal space and avoidance angle or distance within different crowd densities. Two case studies including a multi-mode transportation system layout and a bottleneck/non-bottleneck evacuation are presented.

Effect of light-emitting diode vs. fluorescent lighting on laying hens in aviary hen houses: Part 1 – Operational characteristics of lights and production traits of hens

Light-emitting diode (LED) lights are becoming more affordable for agricultural applications. Despite many lab-scale studies concerning impact of LED on poultry, little research has been documented under field production conditions, especially for laying hens. This 15-month field study was carried out to evaluate the effects of LED vs. fluorescent (FL) lights on laying hens (Dekalb white breed) using 4 (2 pairs) aviary hen houses each at a nominal capacity of 50,000 hens. The evaluation was done regarding operational characteristics of the lights and hen production traits. The results show that spatial distribution of the LED light was less uniform than that of the FL light. Light intensity of the LED light decreased by 27% after 3,360 h use but remained quite steady from 3,360 to 5,760 h use. Eleven out of 762 (1.44%) LED lamps (new at onset of the study) in the 2 houses failed during the 15-month experiment period. The neck area of the LED lamp was hottest, presumably the primary reason for the lamp failure as cracks were noticed in the neck region of all failed LED lamps. No differences were observed in egg weight, hen-day egg production, feed use, and mortality rate between LED and FL regimens. However, hens under the FL had higher eggs per hen housed and better feed conversion than those under the LED during 20 to 70 wk production (P < 0.05). Hens under the LED tended to have less feather uniformity and insulation than those under the FL (P < 0.05). Moreover, hens under the LED showed a larger median avoidance distance than those under the FL at 36 wk age (P < 0.05), indicating that hens under the LED were more alert; but no difference at 60 wk age. More comparative research to quantify behavioral and production responses of different breeds of hens to LED vs. FL lighting seems warranted.

Influence of an early exposure to the calving pen on lying behavior at calving and avoidance distance of dairy heifers

Dairy heifers are confronted with a number of changes in their environment before their first parturition. In this study, we examined the influence of an early exposure to a calving pen 4 weeks prepartum, combined with increased human–animal contact, on behavior around calving and avoidance distance of heifers. Data were collected on 65 Brown Swiss heifers on five Swiss dairy farms. On each farm heifers were randomly assigned to two treatment groups. Thirty-four treated heifers were singly housed for 24h in the calving pen 4 weeks before expected calving, a procedure that also involved handling by a human. Heifers of the control group (n=31) were housed for the first time in the calving pen on the days before and during parturition. Lying behavior was recorded using data loggers, and a human avoidance test involving a familiar and an unfamiliar person was conducted 4 weeks prepartum and 1 week postpartum. Additionally, interventions during parturition were logged. Neither the proportion of time spent lying observed for either 48 or 12h around birth nor the number of lying bouts observed for 48 around birth differed significantly between treated and control heifers (all P>0.20). In the period of 6h before to 6h after calving, the number of lying bouts decreased with number of days that heifers had spent in the calving pen before parturition for the treated heifers and increased for the control heifers (interaction P=0.019). The avoidance distance was higher for the unfamiliar than for the familiar person (P<0.001), tended to decrease from before to after calving (P=0.07), and did not differ between treated and control heifers (P=0.14). There was no significant difference in the risk of an intervention between treated and control heifers (P=0.24). In conclusion, these results do not provide evidence that an early exposure of dairy heifers to the calving pen had a positive effect on their lying behavior around parturition and avoidance distance. However, additional time in the calving pen pre-partum seemed to have a calming effect as reflected by the number of lying bouts in the treated but not the control heifers.

Effects of gentle interactions on the relationship with humans and on stress-related parameters in group-housed calves

AbstractAlthough the relationship between farm animals and humans has strong implications for animal welfare and productivity, there have been few experimental studies on the influence of gentle interactions in group-housed calves. In the present study, Austrian Simmental calves were housed in groups of four under standard management conditions. Fourteen calves experienced 40 min of additional gentle interactions in the form of stroking and gentle talking during the first four weeks of life, whereas the remaining eleven calves did not. The animals’ fear of humans was measured by avoidance distance tests on 33 and 76 days of age and by an arena test that comprised three phases — isolation, presence of a human, isolation — at 34 days of age. The very low avoidance distances did not differ significantly between the groups. In the arena test, there was less behaviour indicative of stress in the presence of the experimenter compared with the isolation phases. Heart-rate measurements showed a corresponding pattern. Control calves showed more tail-flicking than stroked calves and had higher concentrations of salivary cortisol before and after the test. There were no other significant differences between the groups. The minor number of behavioural differences may result from the control animals’ good relationship with humans, ie there is a ceiling effect. If the general contact between stockpeople and calves is gentle and negative experiences are minimised, it is possible to achieve a good calf-human relationship without additional efforts.

The influence of gentle interactions on avoidance distance towards humans, weight gain and physiological parameters in group-housed dairy calves

The quality of the relationship between cattle and their caretakers is important for animal welfare and productivity. Nevertheless, the influence of gentle interactions on group-housed dairy calves has not been thoroughly studied so far. We examined the effects of 42min of gentle interactions (stroking, gentle talking) during the first 14 days of life on female Holstein-Friesian calves. The control calves experienced only routine management. We measured the calves’ avoidance distance towards a familiar person after the treatment phase (17.7±2.4 days old, groups of 12–14 animals), after disbudding (32.3±4.4 days old, groups of 26 animals) and after weaning (86.2±5.1 days old, same group composition as after disbudding). In addition, we measured heart rate variability (HRV) during resting after the treatment and after weaning and concentrations of faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) after weaning, and we calculated the average daily gain in body weight from birth until after weaning.Calves frequently showed neck stretching (occurrence in 37% of all occasions) and play behaviour (9%) during the treatment. After the treatment phase, avoidance distances were lower in stroked calves than in controls (p=0.02). After disbudding, avoidance distances were higher than before in both groups (p<0.001), and there was no longer a significant difference between the groups (interaction of treatment and testing day, p=0.002). After weaning, avoidance distances tended to be lower in stroked calves than in controls (p=0.07). Average daily gain was higher in stroked calves than in controls (p=0.05; up to 7%, depending on milk provision; interaction of treatment and milk provision, p=0.05). There was no significant difference between groups with regard to heart rate variability or faecal cortisol metabolites.The treatment was effective in reducing the calves’ fear of humans in the short term and partly in the medium term. The higher average daily gain in stroked calves is an important economic aspect, as heifers with a high average daily gain have been shown to have a higher milk yield later in life.

Short-term ante-calving handling of dairy heifers in relation to heifers’ behaviour and udder health after parturition

The novelty of being handled during milking contributes to peripartum stress in dairy heifers with possibly adverse effects on their well-being and health. The present study investigated (1) heifers’ behavioural responses to handling over the course of four standardized handling sessions and (2) whether this handling just before parturition led to reduced heifers’ avoidance distances and reduced agitation behaviour in the milking parlour as well as improved udder health. The standardized handling was based on Tellington TTouch® and always started with touching the heifers’ hind quarters (HQ), proceeding over dorsum, neck, flank and belly (rest of the body) to hind legs and udder (HLU) as the target region. Altogether 13 and 14 heifers on three farms were handled or served as control, respectively. Behavioural responses to the handling in the four sessions were observed from videos in 10 of the handled heifers. All animals were tested for their avoidance distance towards an experimenter before handling and 3 to 4 days p.p. Additionally, their agitation behaviour (stepping and kicking) during two milkings at 2 to 4 days p.p., as well as somatic cell scores of the first three monthly milk test recordings (average and difference between first and third test day) were recorded and analysed with mixed models. In the four handling sessions the relative duration of aversive responses to touching at HQ decreased after the first handling. Also the proportion of time in which touching of HLU was tolerated increased in the second and third handling session compared to the first session. However, no significant differences between handled and control heifers were found regarding their behaviour after parturition and their udder health, with large variance in responses during milking. Possibly the handling was not intensive or long-lasting enough and agitation during the first milkings is not only related to fear of humans. Further research is needed to find recommendable and time-efficient on-farm handling methods in order to reduce peripartum stress in heifers.

Effects of wind‐energy facilities on breeding grassland bird distributions

The contribution of renewable energy to meet worldwide demand continues to grow. Wind energy is one of the fastest growing renewable sectors, but new wind facilities are often placed in prime wildlife habitat. Long-term studies that incorporate a rigorous statistical design to evaluate the effects of wind facilities on wildlife are rare. We conducted a before-after-control-impact (BACI) assessment to determine if wind facilities placed in native mixed-grass prairies displaced breeding grassland birds. During 2003-2012, we monitored changes in bird density in 3 study areas in North Dakota and South Dakota (U.S.A.). We examined whether displacement or attraction occurred 1 year after construction (immediate effect) and the average displacement or attraction 2-5 years after construction (delayed effect). We tested for these effects overall and within distance bands of 100, 200, 300, and >300 m from turbines. We observed displacement for 7 of 9 species. One species was unaffected by wind facilities and one species exhibited attraction. Displacement and attraction generally occurred within 100 m and often extended up to 300 m. In a few instances, displacement extended beyond 300 m. Displacement and attraction occurred 1 year after construction and persisted at least 5 years. Our research provides a framework for applying a BACI design to displacement studies and highlights the erroneous conclusions that can be made without the benefit of adopting such a design. More broadly, species-specific behaviors can be used to inform management decisions about turbine placement and the potential impact to individual species. Additionally, the avoidance distance metrics we estimated can facilitate future development of models evaluating impacts of wind facilities under differing land-use scenarios.

Habituation of dairy heifers to milking routine—Effects on human avoidance distance, behavior, and cardiac activity during milking

The onset of lactation marks a significant turning point in a heifer’s life, and prior experience with the milking routine could have positive effects on animal welfare and productivity. The objectives of this multifarm (n=5) study were to investigate (1) whether prelactation training sessions affected behavior during milking, cardiac activity, human avoidance distance, and milk yield, and (2) whether these responses would be modified by the heifer’s initial level of fear of humans. Trained heifers (TH, n=30) experienced the routine in the milking parlor on at least 10 d prepartum, whereas untrained heifers (UH, n=29) entered the parlor for the first time after calving. Behavior and cardiac activity were recorded on d 1 and 7 after calving, and an avoidance test was carried out on the day of integration into the dairy herd as well as on d 1, 7, and 28 postpartum. Each animal’s initial level of fear of humans was classified as high or low based on the first human avoidance distance measured toward an unknown person. Results showed that TH showed less stepping and kicking during the udder preparation phase in the parlor and UH had higher probabilities to put their ears flat on the head, clamp their tail between the hind legs, and have their eyes wide open throughout the different phases in the milking parlor. Heart rate decreased from d 1 to 7, increased from before to during and to after milking and was slightly elevated in TH compared with UH. Milk yield did not differ between TH and UH. Human avoidance distance was not influenced by training, but distance decreased in heifers with a high initial level of fear of humans across repetitions of the test, whereas heifers with a low initial level of fear of humans had generally short avoidance distances. However, initial level of fear of humans neither determined behavior and heart rate during milking nor milk yield of TH and UH. The results indicate that the training regimen applied in the present study habituated heifers, to some extent, to the milking routine.

Understanding mobile banking: The unified theory of acceptance and use of technology combined with cultural moderators

The fast advancement of communications, mobile technologies, and the proliferation of smart devices has increased the importance of mobile banking services for banks, financial institutions, and users. In developing countries, especially in Africa, mobile banking can play a strong role, providing a way to overcome financial exclusion and physical distance by allowing local population to conduct financial transactions. Acceptance studies in this region are scarce, leaving us an almost unexplored area of research. We advance the body of knowledge on mobile banking acceptance by proposing an innovative and comprehensive theoretical model that combines the extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT2) of Venkatesh, Thong, and Xu (2012), with cultural moderators from Hofstede, providing new insights into factors affecting the acceptation and how culture influences individual use behaviour. The model was tested using structural equation modelling (SEM), in a quantitative study conducted in an African country, reinforcing data and knowledge available from this important region. Performance expectancy, hedonic motivation, and habit were found to be the most significant antecedents of behaviour intention. To explain the mobile banking use behaviour the habit and culture moderator effects on behaviour intention over use behaviour were the most important drivers. Collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, short term and power distance were found to be the most significant cultural moderators.

Management Ethics and Social Responsibility Amid Diversity Across Nations

Managers, in both public and private sectors, are likely to face diverse and complex ethical challenges as they make decisions regarding functions such as hiring, promotions, compensation, suppliers and community affairs. Managers who work in a culturally diverse environment are likely to face even more difficult conflicts and decisions since people of different ethnic backgrounds are likely to have different rankings for various decisions and values [1]. For example, people of low context cultures living in individualistic societies are likely to place a higher level of importance on facts or truth [2] like the universalists, while those living in high context cultures that tend to be collectivistic will place loyalty higher as they function more like particularists [3]. Workers working in high uncertainty avoidance cultures are likely to avoid conflicts that can jeopardize their relationships with superiors or colleagues, while those living in low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance environments tend to take more risks even when this can hurt a relationship in the workplace [4, 5]. Therefore, it is important for modern global managers to be aware of such differences in values, behaviors and expectations. They should always act ethically, while also making sure that they are being seen as socially responsible and culturally competent in order to cohesively and synergistically work with and inspire workers toward creativity, innovation and higher productivity [6].

Cultural Influences on Overall Service Quality Expectations: Evidence from Vietnamese Customers

The delivery of superb service quality has captured increasing attention from both academic researchers and practitioners. The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of individual-level cultural values on overall service quality expectations. Results from a sample of 487 Vietnamese customers confirm a significant relationship between service quality expectations and four cultural dimensions of collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and long-term orientation. Within these cultural values, collectivism is the best predictor that contributes to the variance of service quality expectations, followed by uncertainty avoidance and power distance, respectively. This study extends existing research relating to cultural influences on service quality, and suggests managerial implications that service providers should incorporate customers’ cultural values in the processes of market segmentation, customer relationship management and informational interventions.