Avoidance Distance Research Articles

Appraising Performance across Borders: An Empirical Examination of the Purposes and Practices of Performance Appraisal in a Multi‐Country Context

abstractThis study empirically investigated culture's consequences on the major purposes and practices of performance appraisal using a sample (n = 1749) drawn from the banking industry in seven countries across Europe, Asia, and North America. We found that the effects and predictive capability of assertiveness, uncertainty avoidance, in‐group collectivism, and power distance should not be overstated nor are they straightforward. Organizations must be cognizant of the potential influence that a range of other organizational, institutional, and economic factors may wield on appraisal. These findings hold significant implications for the theoretical underpinnings of appraisal, a management tool largely rooted in US equity, expectancy, and procedural justice values and traditions. They also offer important lessons for practice. Not only is the transferability of appraisal and its operationalization affected by interactions with divergent cultures and contextual settings, but new hybrid appraisal architectures are emerging that necessitate further research.

Online Brand Community across Cultures: A Comparison between the US and Korea

The study provides empirical evidence of cultural differences reflected in online brand communities. We analysed 184 consumer-generated brand communities in social networking websites across two cultures (the US and Korea) in terms of how differences in Hofstede's cultural dimensions (individualism, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity/femininity) are manifested. Overall, the results of the study indicate that online consumer-generated brand communities are not culturally neutral, but culture-bound. In particular, the results suggest that brand communities in Korea have significantly more indicators of individualism, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance than do brand communities in the US. However, there was no difference on the masculinity/femininity dimension between the two cultures.

Effects of national culture on process management and technological innovation

In the increasingly globalised international business environment, the effects of national culture on business operations abroad require careful study. This study examines the impact of national culture on process management and technological innovation by investigating major automakers in 14 countries. The findings reveal that uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation positively influence innovation. Moreover, high uncertainty avoidance and low power distance enhance process management in global automakers.

Can stroking during milking decrease avoidance distances of cows towards humans?

AbstractThis study investigated whether short-time stroking of loose-housed dairy cows in the daily farm routine could improve the cow-human relationship and consequently decrease avoidance distances, and whether this effect was persistent. Thirty-one cows (from two different breeds: Holstein Friesian and German Red Pied) received either a treatment (STROKING; n = 15) or no treatment (CONTROL; n = 16). In the STROKING group, each animal was stroked during morning and evening milking by an unfamiliar individual (experimenter) for 3 min over a 5-day period (Treatment 1) and again, 4 weeks later, over a 3.5-day period (Treatment 2). CONTROL animals could observe the experimenter during milking. Before and after treatment, the experimenter recorded the avoidance distances of cows (distance of first withdrawal when approached from the front) at the feeding place (AVOIDfeed) and in the barn (AVOIDbarn). Prior to Treatment 1, CONTROL and STROKING animals did not differ in AVOIDfeed or in AVOIDbarn. After Treatment 1, AVOIDfeed was significantly lower in STROKING animals compared to CONTROL animals. With regard to AVOIDbarn, no significant difference was found between STROKING animals and CONTROL animals after Treatment 1. After 4 weeks, before Treatment 2, CONTROL and STROKING animals did not differ significantly anymore in AVOIDfeed. After Treatment 2, AVOIDfeed was again significantly lower in STROKING animals than in CONTROL animals. Also, in the barn, (AVOIDbarn), STROKING animals avoided the experimenter less than CONTROL animals after Treatment 2. In terms of within-group evolution of avoidance distances, AVOIDfeed of CONTROL animals did not decrease in the course of the two treatments. Only after Treatment 2 were avoidance distances at the feeding place of STROKING animals significantly lower than initial avoidance distances. AVOIDbarn of CONTROL animals decreased after Treatment 1 but did not decrease significantly after Treatment 2. AVOIDbarn of STROKING animals decreased significantly after Treatment 1 and again after Treatment 2. It is suggested that short-time stroking during milking can affect the responses of cows to humans positively, although our results question the amount of contact necessary: even more contact might be required for lasting effects.

On-farm welfare assessment in cattle: validity, reliability and feasibility issues and future perspectives with special regard to the Welfare Quality® approach

AbstractThis paper discusses the current state of development of on-farm cattle welfare assessment systems with special regard to the approach of Welfare Quality® that focuses on animal-related measures. The central criteria validity, reliability and feasibility are considered with regard to selected welfare measures. All welfare measures incorporated into the Welfare Quality® protocol possess face validity, but for most of them construct or criterion validity as, eg shown for lameness, have not been demonstrated. Exemplarily the cases of qualitative behaviour assessment and measurement of avoidance distance towards humans or social licking are discussed. Reliability issues have often been neglected in the past and require more thorough investigation and discussion in the future, especially with respect to appropriate test statistics and limits of acceptability. Means of improving reliability are the refinement of definitions or recording methods and training. Consistency of results over time requires further attention, especially if farms are to be certified, based on infrequent recordings. Considering feasibility, time constraints are the main concern for assessment systems that focus seriously on animal-based measures; currently they require several hours of on-farm recordings, eg about 6 h for a herd of 60 dairy cows. The Welfare Quality® project has promoted knowledge and discussion about validity, reliability and feasibility issues. Many welfare measures applied in the Welfare Quality® on-farm assessment approach can be regarded sufficiently valid, reliable and feasible. However, there are still a considerable number of challenges. They should be tackled while using the present assessment system in order to constantly improve it.

Preventive Action of Kai Xin San Aqueous Extract on Depressive-Like Symptoms and Cognition Deficit Induced by Chronic Mild Stress

Kai Xin San (KXS), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has been used clinically for the treatment of depressive disorders and cognitive impairment for centuries. However, the effects of KXS on cognitive dysfunction induced by depression have not been evaluated scientifically. The present study aimed to explore the antidepressant-like and nootropic effects of an aqueous extract of KXS (at doses of 0.3, 0.9, and 2.7 g/kg/day) using chronic mild stress (CMS) as a model of depression. Depressive symptoms were analyzed using the sucrose-preference and novelty-induced inhibition of feeding tests. Cognitive function was evaluated using a two-way active avoidance task. Serum corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) protein expression in the hippocampus, and monoamine neurotransmitter concentrations in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus were also determined to elucidate the neurochemical mechanisms. Experimental results showed that KXS aqueous extract significantly ameliorated the CMS-induced depressive symptoms, including the reduced preference index and prolonged latency to novelty-suppressed feeding. Simultaneously, KXS significantly reversed the CMS-induced decrease in the numbers of active avoidance and active movement distances and increase in the numbers of the passive avoidance and passive movement distances, thereby producing nootropic effects in the two-way active avoidance test. KXS also inhibited the increased AChE expression in the hippocampus, up-regulated the decreased monoamine neurotransmitter concentrations of both brain areas and reduced the elevated ACTH concentrations in the serum induced by CMS. Taken together, these results indicate that KXS exerts its antidepressant-like and nootropic effects in the CMS model by modulating the HPA axis, monoamine neurotransmitter and cholinergic systems.

Reliability of an avoidance distance test for the assessment of animals’ responsiveness to humans and a preliminary investigation of its association with farmers’ attitudes on bull fattening farms

In many farm animal species, the relationship to humans affects their welfare considerably. But until now, on-farm studies on fattening bulls have been limited. A feasible, reliable methodology for assessing responses of bulls to humans would be helpful for large scale surveys on this topic. Measuring avoidance distance at the feeding place (ADF) to assess animals’ relationship to humans was shown to be a feasible and stable measure in dairy cow herds. So, the main objective of this study was to investigate reliability aspects of measuring avoidance distance at the feeding place towards an unknown experimenter on bull fattening farms. Moreover, we were interested in the potential confounding factor age of animals, and, on a preliminary level, a possible relationship of responsiveness of bulls to farmers’ attitudes. With regard to reliability, between-experimenter repeatability – the repeatability of ADF when carried out by different experimenters within short time – was evaluated by two experimenters in a balanced order with 602 fattening bulls on 10 farms. The experimenter was both the stimulus person and the person collecting the data. Between-experimenter repeatability was analysed at an individual and at farm level. We recorded the median and mean values of avoidance distances [ADF median, ADF mean] per farm and the percentages of bulls accepting to be touched [ADF % touch] or showing avoidance distances greater than 20 cm [ADF % > 0.2 m]. Inter-observer reliability, based on individual observations recorded by an experimenter and an observer simultaneously, was tested on six farms. Farmers were asked to complete a questionnaire in order to assess their attitudes (behavioural beliefs and affective attitudes) towards interacting with bulls. Generally, inter-observer reliability for ADF was high ( r s > 0.9, n = 288/297). At an individual level, moderate between-experimenter repeatability could be attained ( r s = 0.6, n = 469). At farm level ( n = 10), Spearman rank correlation coefficients ( r s) for between-experimenter repeatability ranged from >0.4 to 0.7. A low negative correlation was found between ADF and age at an individual level ( r s = −0.14, P = 0.015, n = 320). Despite the rather low range of avoidance distances observed between farms, ADF correlated significantly with some of the farmers’ attitudes. ADF was lower in case of farmers expressing more positive affective attitudes towards contacts with the animals (significantly so for the measures ADF mean and ADF % > 0.2 m [ P < 0.05]). In conclusion, the use of the avoidance distance test at the feeding place (ADF) is promising for assessing the responses of fattening bulls to humans due to its feasibility, reliability and sensitivity both at an individual and at farm level. Based on a limited number of farms, our first exploration of the relationships between farmers’ attitudes and responses of bulls to humans in the home environment suggests possible links that require further investigations.

Effects of pen floor and class of live weight on behavioural and clinical parameters of beef cattle

The study compared behaviour and clinical parameters of beef cattle housed on two different types of floor (fully slatted vs. deep litter) considering animals belonging to 2 live weight classes (less vs. more than 350 kg). The assessment of behavioural and clinical parameters was carried out in 20 intensive farms, all rearing imported bulls. Floor type had no effect on cattle behaviour except for the duration of the lying down sequence, which lasted more for bulls kept on slats. Slatted floor increased also the likelihood of occurrence of hair and skin lesions and lameness. On the other hand, bulls cleanliness was more likely to be impaired on bedded floor. Regarding the class of live weight, behavioural observation showed lighter animals performing more antagonistic interactions, while horning resulted more frequent in heavier bulls. Avoidance distance test indicated that bulls >350 kg were more fearful of humans. About health status, light animals were more affected by respiratory disease and hairless patches, likely because they are more sensitive to the stressful situations imposed by their transfer and adaptation to the new housing environment of the fattening unit. The risk of skin lesions and dirtiness increased instead in heavier bulls.

Globalization’s culture consequences of MBA education across Australia and Singapore: sophistry or truth?

A generally held view among international managers is that the cultural changes occurring in most modernizing societies may lead to similar outcomes and the erosion of cultural differences. Cultural convergence is posited to result from the homogenizing effect of technological transfers between societies. One major force which emerges from this technology transfer is the convergence of education (Webber 1969). The purpose of this study is to investigate the convergence of Masters of Business Administration (MBA) education along Hofstede’s (1997, 2001) five work-related cultural dimensions across Australia and Singapore. The pre-test and post-test quasi experimental design with control groups was employed. The findings revealed that there are convergences along Hofstede’s Individualism, Uncertainly Avoidance and Power Distance. However, the Singapore Chinese scored significantly higher on Long versus Short-term Orientation (or Confucian Work Dynamism) at both time points.

Multiple spatial‐scale resource selection function models in relation to human disturbance for moose in northeastern China

AbstractThe moose (Alces alces cameloides) population in northeastern China is on the southernmost edge of its distribution in Asia. A survey was conducted to determine moose resource selection and the effects of human disturbance on moose in a study area of 20,661 ha located on the northwestern slope of the Lesser Khingan Mountains, located in northeastern China. Predictive models of resource selection were developed using logistic and autologistic regression. All models considered resource variable selection at two spatial scales, patch and landscape. At the patch scale, moose preferred larger birch (Betula platyphylla) patches, but avoided larger tamarack (Larix gmelinii) patches. At the landscape scale, moose preferred higher densities of tamarack patches, i.e., heterogeneity of tamarack stands, selected areas with more abundant annual shoots, terrain conducive to better concealment, higher altitudes and areas saturated with soil moisture. Roads and forest harvest intervals were identified as important human disturbance factors. This is the first time that moose have been reported to avoid roads, and the avoidance distance was nearly 3 km. We believe that in this region moose under the influence of roads are behaviorally plastic, compared with the indifference of moose to the presence of roads in other regions. Moose avoided forest areas logged more than 3 years previously and preferred areas logged 1–2 years previously. In addition, it may be necessary to monitor the effect of the dynamic of density of roe deer on the spatial distribution of the moose population.

Executive Staffing Practice Patterns in Foreign MNC Affiliates Based in Japan

Our empirical study provides insights into executive staffing practice patterns in foreign MNC affiliates based in Japan. Using a sample of 3,241 foreign companies, our results show that affiliate size and high ownership ratio are associated with larger numbers of parent-country nationals (PCNs) in top management and board positions. However, contrary to research in other countries, affiliate age was not related to the likelihood of sending PCNs. Two cultural variables relating to parent countries, Uncertainty Avoidance and Power Distance, were found to be associated with the likelihood of multinationals sending PCNs to executive positions at their affiliates. Furthermore, Japan's two major centres (Kanto and Kansai) have more PCN top managers and PCN board members than other parts of the country. Finally, we found Asian countries to be most likely to send PCNs as top managers or board members, and English-speaking countries the least, with European countries in between.

Management innovation and cultural adaptivity in international online banking

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is both to determine Citibank's response to cultural diversity in the dynamic, highly competitive global market for online banking facilities and services, and whether or not international online bank web sites are constructed in a manner sensitive to the culture of their host country.Design/methodology/approachThis paper takes the perspective of managing innovation for shareholder wealth maximization where consumer behavior is mediated through the technology acceptance model (TAM) belief constructs. The incorporation of variables reflecting Hofstede's four‐factor framework in 45 country‐specific web sites operated directly by Citibank are compared with those variables in 189 web sites of indigenous banks.FindingsThe results suggest that culture has an important influence on international online banking web sites and that Citibank has adapted the form and content of its web sites to local cultural influences in a manner comparable to that of the indigenous banks. Further, the role of each of Hofstede's four cultural dimensions is seen to influence the form and content of online bank web sites. This finding confirms earlier research about the role of culture in the TAM.Research limitations/implicationsThe results of this study are constrained by the extent to which the Hofstede framework actually captures the relevant dimensions of culture and the extent to which the measures of web site cultural attributes used in this study are valid. Further, the results are also limited by the fact that 23 of the Citibank web sites were located in countries for which Hofstede data were not available and by the small size of this study.Practical implicationsSuccess in the burgeoning and highly competitive online banking environment requires bank management to adapt their web sites to local cultural conditions. Small differences in language, the portrayal of individuals, and the background used in the site can significantly impact the acceptance of this distribution channel by the target population. This study confirms the importance of the cultural values of individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance with respect to consumer acceptance of online banking.Originality/valueThese findings provide guidance for bank managers as they expand their online banking operations into the international arena. They also support research confirming the importance of culture in determining international consumer behavior within the TAM.

Managers' gender role attitudes: a country institutional profile approach

In this paper, we use the country institutional profile to investigate how selected cognitive, normative, and regulative aspects of various countries relate to traditional gender role attitudes of managers from these countries. Our cross-level analyses, using hierarchical linear modeling, control for a number of individual characteristics (i.e., age, education, gender, and social class). Results support our hypotheses that managers' traditional gender role attitudes relate positively to nation-level uncertainty avoidance and power distance. Moreover, the results support our predictions that gender egalitarian normative institutions, degree of regulation, and degree of educational development are negatively related to managers' traditional gender role attitudes. However, results reject our hypotheses regarding nation-level religiosity, assertiveness, and masculinity, not showing the proposed relationship with managers' traditional gender role attitudes. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Reliability and inter-test relationship of tests for on-farm assessment of dairy cows’ relationship to humans

Animals’ relationship to humans, i.e., their perception of humans, is an important parameter to be included into on-farm welfare assessment schemes. The objectives of this study were to evaluate inter-observer reliability and between-experimenter repeatability of three previously used and two new tests feasible for on-farm assessment of animals’ relationship to humans in loose-housed dairy cows. Additionally, inter-test relationships were analysed to obtain first information on the potential validity of the two new tests. Two experimenters performed five tests (avoidance distance test at the feeding place [AvoidF] and in the barn [AvoidB], approach test to a stationary human in the barn [Appr], passing and touching lying animals [LyingPT], walking through the herd and trying to touch animals [WalkT]) on 16 commercial dairy farms in a balanced order. The person actually not testing the cows observed and recorded the test results from a distance (observer). Inter-observer reliability was investigated by relating results of observer and experimenter. Between-experimenter repeatability, comprising inter-observer reliability as well as consistency of reactions of animals to humans, was evaluated by correlating the test results of both experimenters. Observer or experimenter biases were evaluated by testing for significant differences. High inter-observer reliability was found for all tests under consideration: correlation coefficients exceeded 0.9, percentage agreement for LyingPT was 100%, and negligible observer biases were found. Between-experimenter repeatability of the two avoidance distance tests (AvoidF and AvoidB) was high to very high ( r = 0.7 to >0.9), both at an individual as well as at herd level. Evaluated at herd level, LyingPT was also highly repeatable ( r = 0.7), whereas WalkT and Appr showed only moderate (0.4 to <0.7) between-experimenter repeatability. With regard to inter-test relationships (used for a preliminary investigation of convergent validity of the new tests), the avoidance distance test in the barn (AvoidB) highly correlated with AvoidF and WalkT ( r = 0.7–0.9) and moderately (0.5) with LyingPT. The approach test (Appr) did not correlate significantly with any of the other tests ( r = 0.0–0.4). Principal component analysis results showed that all but the measure of Appr loaded highly |≥0.7| on one component. In sum, regarding reliability and convergent validity, both avoidance distance tests can be recommended as tests for assessing the cows’ relationship to humans. In addition, the high interrelationship between WalkT and the avoidance distance test in the barn (AvoidB) makes WalkT a promising test for further development despite the absence of sufficient between-experimenter repeatability in the present study.

1112 自動車用自動衝突回避システムの回避特性に関するシミュレーション解析(OS3-3 自動回避システム,OS3 交通・物流システムの制御,オーガナイズド・セッション)

As one of the automobile assist technologies, there is an automatic collision avoidance system in which both of the automatic-steering and the automatic-braking are actuated. The performance of it is analyzed by the computer simulation. In the automatic collision avoidance system, the avoidance distance is an important evaluation index. It is considered that this avoidance distance is influenced by various parameters such as the vehicle mass and the center of gravity position. Therefore, the simulation with changes of some parameters is conducted and the relation with the variation of the avoidance distance is analyzed.

The impact of national and organisational cultures on intergroup coordination in software development in mainland China: a qualitative analysis

Intergroup coordination is critical for the success of large software projects. This paper examines the impact of national culture and organisational culture on intergroup coordination success factors (knowledge sharing, communication, mutual support and stakeholder commitment) through a qualitative analysis of semistructured interviews conducted in mainland China. We draw on a multiple-case study of five different-sized Chinese software companies to identify common patterns of national cultural impact across the cases as well as differences generated due to different organisational cultures. Based on a coding scheme, our research shows that collectivism and concern for 'face' have the most salient impact on these factors. Uncertainty avoidance and power distance also have a slight impact. Interestingly, several organisational culture dimensions (harmony, customer orientation, quality orientation and leadership style) can explain part of the differences among companies. The paper contributes to the team coordination literature, particularly to intergroup coordination in software development, and provides research evidence to support the impact of culture on the implementation of the Capability Maturity Model for Software (SW-CMM). It also has implications for Chinese software project management practice.

A multilevel research framework for the analyses of attitudes toward immigrants

Traditional research in acculturation and adjustment has mostly been done from a sojourner's or immigrant's perspective. The current research, however, centers on the recipient nationals’ attitudes toward immigrants and multiculturalism. Three distinctive frameworks to examine host nationals’ perceptions are proposed based on (1) intergroup relations, (2) individual level differences, and (3) cultural level differences. Five studies were conducted in line with the three frameworks using attitudes toward immigrants as the common dependent measure. Based on the intergroup framework, Studies 1 and 2 examined the influence of intergroup contact, national pride, perceived permeability, fairness, intergroup threat, and host community acculturation strategies. Results showed that decreased contact and increased threat predicted less favorable perception toward immigrants (Study 1); respondents who espoused a need for immigrant assimilation and exclusionism, and those who espoused a less individualistic perception toward migration expressed more negative immigrant attitudes (Study 2). In the second framework on individual differences, the influence of personal enduring dispositions on immigrant attitudes was examined. The independent variables included social dominance orientation, self-esteem, individualism-collectivism, national pride, and Schwartz's personal values. Low self-esteem and individualism, and high social dominance predicted less favorable attitudes toward immigrants. Furthermore, high social dominance predicted less favorable perceptions but only among host nationals who also rated high on individualism (Study 3). Regarding personal values orientation, respondents who placed greater emphasis on security and achievement motivation expressed more negative attitudes, but endorsement of the stimulation value type predicted more favorable perceptions (Study 4). In the third and final framework, effects of cultural differences on immigrant attitudes were examined (Study 5). Secondary data from the Eurobarometer [Eurobarometer, 2000. Attitudes towards minority groups in the European Union: A special analysis of the Eurobarometer 2000 opinion poll on behalf of the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. Eurobarometer Opinion Poll. Retrieved September 1, 2003 from http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/index_en.htm] and Hofstede's cultural typologies were used. Masculinity was associated with reduced multicultural optimism and support for policies that promote social co-existence; uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, and power distance were related to weaker support for multicultural policies. Overall, two broad dimensions of acculturation experience emerged from the research, the first one is based on an ‘invasion’ perspective and the second one reflects an ‘enrichment’ experience.

The acceptability of lies: A comparison of Ecuadorians and Euro-Americans

Abstract This study examined differences between Ecuadorian and Euro-American college students in the perceived acceptability of lies. Six different lie domains were examined: flattery, impression management, conflict avoidance, enhancement of others’ self-esteem, self-aggrandizement, and instrumental lies. Overall, Euro-Americans rated lies as more acceptable than Ecuadorians. In both cultures, lies motivated by a desire to benefit others were considered to be more acceptable than lies that primarily benefited the self. Additionally, lying to the outgroup was perceived as being more acceptable than lying to the ingroup. These results were interpreted in light of the findings that Ecuadorians scored higher on measures of uncertainty avoidance and power distance, whereas Euro-Americans scored higher on levels of independence. The implications of these findings for intercultural relations and future directions for research are discussed.

Validation of tests for on-farm assessment of the hen–human relationship in non-cage systems

The relationship of laying hens towards humans is an important aspect of animal welfare. Tests for assessing the hen–human relationship on farm should be validated prior to their use. In this paper, we investigated the validity of three recently developed tests assumed to measure the hen–human relationship in non-caged hens. The study was conducted in two identical houses on a commercial free-range farm on 12 groups of laying hens, each group comprising about 500 birds brown hybrids. Over a 2-week treatment period, six groups of laying hens received 15 min of additional human contact twice daily (additional contact groups), consisting of walking, talking, feeding and touching single birds. Six control groups received only minimal human contact besides the routine management. Immediately before and after the treatment period, all groups were tested with the three tests. These were measuring the reactions of hens towards a stationary person (stationary person test, SPT), a moving person approaching individual hens (avoidance distance test; ADT) and a stationary person trying to touch individual hens (touch test; TT). Additionally, a test to assess fear of novelty (novel object test; NOT) was performed. Exposure to additional human contact led to significant differences between additional contact and control groups in all parameters of the three tests assessing the hen's relationship to humans (all; p < 0.01). The avoidance distance decreased (ADT; p = 0.028), whereas the proportion of touched birds (TT; p = 0.028) and the number of birds near the test person (SPT; p = 0.028) increased after the 2-week handling period within the additional contact groups but not in the control groups. These findings suggest that (1) the tests effectively measure the human–hen relationship and support the validity of the tests and (2) reactions of laying hens to humans can be actively influenced by the quality of human contact in non-cage systems.

Long-term consistency of selected animal-related welfare parameters in dairy farms

AbstractIt was the purpose of this study to assess the consistency of selected animal-based welfare parameters for dairy cattle throughout a one-year period. Eight cubicle-housed dairy herds were visited five times, at two-monthly intervals. At each visit, lameness, injuries to the carpal and tarsal joints, cleanliness, social behaviour and the avoidance distance towards an unknown person were assessed by the same observer in a random sample.At herd level, lesions of the carpal joints, udder cleanliness and frequencies of agonistic and cohesive behaviour showed low consistency. However, correlations between consecutive recordings as well as between single visits and the average were moderate to satisfactory for lameness prevalence, lesions of the tarsal joints, cleanliness of the hind leg and avoidance distances towards an unknown person in two different locations. The integration of these parameters into on-farm welfare assessment protocols seems to be justified.