Fire Control Research Articles

Research on risk evolution, prevention, and control of fire and explosion accidents in hydrogen refueling stations based on the AcciMap-FTA model

Research on risk evolution, prevention, and control of fire and explosion accidents in hydrogen refueling stations based on the AcciMap-FTA model

Influence of internal and external factors on thermal runaway characteristics of lithium-ion batteries induced by dual heat sources: An experimental research

Localized overheating is a common application fault in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and a significant trigger for thermal runaway (TR). The application scenarios involving multi-point synchronous heating have made the induction of LIB TR behavior by dual heat sources a research hotspot. Both internal battery conditions and external heat source conditions influence TR behavior. This study systematically investigates and analyzes experimental results from two aspects: internal battery conditions (cathode material type and state of charge (SOC)) and external heat source conditions (arrangement of dual heat sources and heating power). The results show that SOC and cathode materials are the key factors affecting thermal safety. Under dual heat source induction, NCM811 battery has the lowest TR triggering temperature and the highest TR peak temperature due to the difference in thermal stability of electrode materials. Different heat source arrangement will affect the heat transfer path between the battery and the heat source, and then affect the heat transfer and heat dissipation efficiency between the battery modules. HBH heat source arrangement has the shortest thermal runaway triggering time. TR in NCM batteries is accompanied by flame jetting behavior, with the largest peak flame area of 4415 cm2 observed in 100 % SOC NCM811 batteries. The primary components of particulate matter in TR eruptions are carbon and metal oxides, with internal battery conditions being important factors influencing the composition of erupted particles. The severity of TR is linked to mass loss, with NCM811 batteries experiencing the highest mass loss due to the combustion of more materials, indicating greater fire risk. The research results provide important scientific references for improving the theory of LIB TR, guiding TR and fire prevention and control, and formulating relevant standards.

Mechanism-Based Fire Hazard Chain Risk Assessment for Roll-On/Roll-Off Passenger Vessels Transporting Electric Vehicles: A Fault Tree–Fuzzy Bayesian Network Approach

Roll-on/Roll-off passenger vessels transporting electric vehicles (Ro-Ro EVs) face unique fire hazards, challenging traditional fire risk management strategies. This study integrates fault tree analysis (FTA) with Fuzzy Bayesian Network (FBN) to assess the fire risks of Ro-Ro EVs across the entire hazard chain. Given limited historical accident data, five experts familiar with the Shanghai Baoshan–Chongming ferry route refine fault tree models to visualize key fire hazard chain mechanisms and estimate risk probabilities. The FBN incorporates fault tree hierarchical structures, EV and Ro-Ro vessel-related risk factors, and applies a nine-level fuzzy scoring system to assess these risks. The FTA-FBN model offers a comprehensive framework for evaluating emerging fire risks specific to Ro-Ro EVs. Findings indicate that the highest risk occurs during the ignition phase. Primary triggers include external heat sources, improper vehicle securing, and vehicle collisions, leading to thermal runaway in lithium batteries. Failures in extinguishing and detecting lithium battery fires exacerbate fire spread. Effective fire compartmentalization and flammable material management are essential to prevent uncontrolled fires. Recommendations for fire prevention and control include shipboard battery level monitoring, charging restrictions, explosion-proof electrical installations, enhanced ventilation, lithium battery fire suppression systems, and vehicle securing.

Timber harvesting was the most important factor driving changes in vegetation composition, as compared to climate and fire regime shifts, in the mixedwood temperate forests of Temiscamingue since AD 1830

ContextThe vegetation composition of northeastern North American forests has significantly changed since pre-settlement times, with a marked reduction in conifer-dominated stands, taxonomic and functional diversity. These changes have been attributed to fire regime shifts, logging, and climate change.MethodsIn this study, we disentangled the individual effects of these drivers on the forest composition in southwestern Quebec from 1830 to 2000 by conducting retrospective modelling using the LANDIS-II forest landscape model. The model was run based on pre-settlement forest composition and fire history reconstructions, historical timber harvest records, and climate reanalysis data. We compared counterfactual scenarios excluding individual factors to a baseline historical scenario.Results and ConclusionsOur results indicated that timber harvesting had the greatest impact on forest dynamics over the past centuries. In the absence of timber harvesting, pre-settlement species abundances were largely maintained, preserving key functional traits like fire and shade tolerance that contribute to ecosystem resilience. Increased fire activity during the settlement period contributed to the increase of early-successional aspen (Populus tremuloides), but timber harvesting played the dominant role. Fire exclusion had no influence on vegetation composition, suggesting mesophication unfolds over longer timescales than those captured in this study. Climate change, characterized by modest increases in temperature and precipitation, had a minor effect on vegetation shifts, as increased precipitation might have mitigated the adverse effects of rising temperatures. However, future climate change is projected to become a more significant driver of forest composition. These findings underscore the importance of forest restoration and continued research on past forest dynamics to better understand current and future changes.

Bark thickness variation in five young South African-grown Pinus species and hybrids

Key messageUnderstanding bark allocation in juvenile stages of commercially viablePinustrees can be useful in dating wood formation, thus improving the accuracy of correlating wood quality to environmental factors.Bark is an important and multifunctional part of plant anatomy that has been researched mostly in the context of fire history, timber resource assessments and more recently as a bioresource. Few studies have comprehensively examined bark thickness in some commercially valuable Pinus species. More importantly, the role of bark in accurately dating wood formation has seldom been researched. This study was conducted to model and compare bark thickness variation between different species of young South African-grown Pinus trees including Pinus radiata var. radiata D. Don., Pinus elliottii Engelm., Pinus elliottii × Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis, Pinus patula × Pinus tecunumanii (Low Elevation), and Pinus patula × Pinus tecunumanii (High Elevation). Measurements were taken at 1.6 and 2.3 years including absolute and relative bark thickness and distribution along the stem. Results showed species-specific variation in absolute and relative bark thickness with the highest means recorded in Pinus elliottii × Pinus caribaea and lowest in Pinus radiata. A positive linear relationship was observed between bark thickness and diameter, consistent with all species and ages. Absolute bark thickness decreased along the stem from bottom to top while more nuanced patterns of variation were observed for relative bark thickness. These findings underscore the importance of understanding bark thickness in young trees for various applications, including dating wood formation, anticipatory breeding strategies for quality wood and predicting stand quality among others.

Homo erectus adapted to steppe-desert climate extremes one million years ago

Questions about when early members of the genus Homo adapted to extreme environments like deserts and rainforests have traditionally focused on Homo sapiens. Here, we present multidisciplinary evidence from Engaji Nanyori in Tanzania’s Oldupai Gorge, revealing that Homo erectus thrived in hyperarid landscapes one million years ago. Using biogeochemical analyses, precise chronometric dating, palaeoclimate simulations, biome modeling, fire history reconstructions, palaeobotanical studies, faunal assemblages, and archeological evidence, we reconstruct an environment dominated by semidesert shrubland. Despite these challenges, Homo erectus repeatedly occupied fluvial landscapes, leveraging water sources and ecological focal points to mitigate risk. These findings suggest archaic humans possessed an ecological flexibility previously attributed only to later hominins. This adaptability likely facilitated the expansion of Homo erectus into the arid regions of Africa and Eurasia, redefining their role as ecological generalists thriving in some of the most challenging landscapes of the Middle Pleistocene.

The Inhibition Effect of CO2-N2 Composite Gas on Spontaneous Combustion of Coal and the Law of Competitive Adsorption in Coal

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to study the effect of CO2-N2 composite gas on coal spontaneous combustion index gas and the mechanism of inhibiting coal spontaneous combustion through a competitive adsorption process and to provide theoretical guidance for adopting inert injection fire prevention and control technology in goaf to prevent coal spontaneous combustion. The programmed temperature experiment and gas chromatography were used to analyze the indicator gas after injecting different mixed ratios of CO2 and N2 inert gas. In the whole oxidation heating process (25–300 ℃), the generation of indicator gas and the peak point of gas ratio showed an apparent “Hysteresis phenomenon” and the more significant the proportion of CO2 in the composite inert gas, the more pronounced the “Hysteresis phenomenon.” Even in the CO2-dry air environment, the peak point disappears, indicating that with the injection of N2 and CO2, the coal body is in a more complex gas atmosphere, and a variety of gases are in the process of adsorption and desorption on the inner and outer surfaces of the coal body. The characteristics of the evolution of the spontaneous combustion oxidation process of coal are more complex, directly affecting the coal-oxygen interaction, thus affecting the intuitive combustion oxidation process. Molecular simulation studies the characteristics of coal molecules on CO2, N2, and O2. The results show that the adsorption capacity and adsorption energy of coal molecules on CO2 molecules are more significant than O2 and N2, and there is a competitive adsorption relationship between CO2 and N2 molecules and O2 molecules, and the competitive adsorption capacity of CO2 is more significant than N2. It shows that the composite inert gas can inhibit the coal-oxygen adsorption by competitive adsorption to displace oxygen and achieve the combustion inhibition effect. The experimental and theoretical basis for developing and improving inert gas fire extinguishing technology is provided by studying the index gas after CO2-N2 composite inert gas action and the adsorption capacity and energy in the competitive adsorption process.

Effect of water mist system settings on fire and upstream smoke control in a longitudinally ventilated tunnel

The effect of Water Mist System (WMS) settings on fire Heat Release Rate (HRR), smoke gas temperature, smoke blocking effectiveness and required critical velocity were investigated in a 3 m (width)× 2.2 m(height)× 30 m (length) tunnel model equipped with longitudinal ventilation (LV). A total of 60 tests were conducted in 12 configurations, varying the nozzles position, nozzle row number and nozzles pressure. Additionally, 5 bucket tests were also carried out to assess the influence of LV on water mist trajectories. The bucket test results revealed a strong correlation between fire HRRs and the “local” water quantity on the ground near the fire source, particularly for smaller fires. The WMS’s effectiveness in reducing the maximum smoke gas temperature rise and critical velocity largely depends on the nozzles which are placed closest to the fire source to a great extent. Reducing the distance to the fire source or increasing water flow rates could both enhance the reduction effect. However, activating additional upstream nozzle rows provides minimal benefit, as the interaction between adjacent rows becomes negligible at higher LV velocities. In contrast, increasing the number of nozzle rows can enhance smoke blocking effectiveness, as measured by the confinement velocity reduction rate. The findings demonstrate that the entrainment and blockage effect of WMS are the primary determinants of the smoke back-layering (BL) degree under the confinement velocity conditions, rather than the smoke cooling effect. Furthermore, positioning the WMS upstream of the fire source and maintaining a certain distance can optimize the combined effects of WMS and LV on fire HRR and smoke back-layering control, which is partly due to the water mist deflection under ventilation flow. This preliminary study provides foundational data on fire and smoke control using water mist in longitudinally ventilated tunnels and offers insights for the optimal design of WMSs.

Seeing the Savanna Through the Trees: Vegetation Structure, Composition and Function Along a Forest‐Savanna Boundary in Cambodia

ABSTRACTIn the seasonally dry landscapes of continental Southeast Asia, deciduous dipterocarp vegetation (DDF) and semi‐evergreen forests (SEF) form patchy landscape mosaics, with abrupt boundaries between them. DDF resembles savanna, with an open canopy and a continuous grassy ground layer, while SEF lacks grass and has high tree cover and a closed canopy. Alternative hypotheses suggest that these distinct vegetation types are alternative stable states maintained by fire‐vegetation feedbacks, that differences in edaphic conditions across landscapes explain their distributions, and/or that DDF are degraded or early successional forests whose distribution is determined by legacies of anthropogenic disturbance. Here, we compare structure, composition, and functional traits of woody vegetation across DDF‐SEF boundaries, and ask whether differences across vegetation types are associated with edaphic factors or fire history. We found major differences in vegetation structure and species composition across DDF and SEF, with few shared species across vegetation types. Dominant DDF tree species were not found in SEF, suggesting that DDF represents a distinct vegetation community, rather than early successional or degraded forest. Compared to SEF species, DDF species had lower specific leaf area and higher bark thickness, a key trait associated with fire tolerance. Soil texture and fertility did not differ across vegetation types. Together, these findings suggest that fire, not edaphic factors, likely is the key driver of vegetation at DDF‐SEF boundaries. Our results further support classifying and managing DDF as savanna. Conserving the unique biodiversity of DDF‐SEF mosaic landscapes will require research to support evidence‐based fire management.

Alberta’s 2023 wildfires: context, factors, and futures

Wildfires burned an estimated 2.2 million hectares in Alberta in 2023. We describe key attributes of the fires relative to historical fires and fire seasons and offer a perspective on potentially influential factors. Thirty-six large fires ≥10 000 ha generated 95% of annual area burned. Individually, these fires exhibited sizes, fire weather, and behaviour consistent with historical fires; there were simply far more of them in 2023. Thirteen fires reported in early May were ignited by lightning and reached final sizes ≥10 000 ha, revealing a previously unrecognized threat. Historically, large lightning-ignited fires reported before mid-May occur just once per decade on average. Collectively, 18 large fires reported in early May coincided with drier conditions compared with 18 large fires reported after mid-May. Early May fire weather was also warmer and drier than historical weather. The early May fire group was a temporally concentrated outbreak in west-central Alberta and coincided with extreme potential rate of fire spread. Large fires reported after mid-May were intermittent through to September, concentrated in northern regions and coincided with extreme potential for fuel consumption. Individually, these two spatiotemporal modes of fire season severity (outbreak, intermittent) produced annual burned areas on par with historical extremes. Together, the 2023 multi-modal pattern of fire season severity amplified area burned far above anything previously recorded. Potential contributing factors include climate warming, hemispheric teleconnections, phenology and exhaustion of suppression resources. Implications for future fire seasons, research and management are discussed.

Frequent, heterogenous fire supports a forest owl assemblage.

Fire shapes biodiversity in many forested ecosystems, but historical management practices and anthropogenic climate change have led to larger, more severe fires that threaten many animal species where such disturbances do not occur naturally. As predators, owls can play important ecological roles in biological communities, but how changing fire regimes affect individual species and species assemblages is largely unknown. Here, we examined the impact of fire severity, history, and configuration over the past 35 years on an assemblage of six forest owl species in the Sierra Nevada, California, using ecosystem-scale passive acoustic monitoring. While the negative impacts of fire on this assemblage appeared to be ephemeral (1-4 years in duration), spotted owls avoided sites burned at high-severity for up to two decades after a fire. Low- to moderate-severity fire benefited small cavity-nesting species and great horned owls. Most forest owl species in this study appeared adapted to fire within the region's natural range of variation, characterized by higher proportions of low- to moderate-severity fire and relatively less high-severity fire. While some species in this assemblage may be more resilient to severe wildfire than others, novel "megafires" that are larger, more frequent, and contiguously severe may limit the distribution of this assemblage by reducing the prevalence of low- to moderate-severity fire and eliminating habitat for a closed-canopy species for multiple decades. Management strategies that restore historical low- to moderate-severity fire with small patches of high-severity fire and promote a mosaic of forest conditions will likely facilitate the conservation of this assemblage of forest predators.

Introducing an integrated approach for fire safety assessment in healthcare facilities by interval valued neutrosophic-AHP and Fuzzy Inference System.

Fire safety in healthcare facilities is extremely important due to limited evacuation capacity of occupants. Therefore, poor fire safety precautions lead to more fatalities and financial losses. This study introduces an effective fire risk management approach for healthcare buildings utilizing an interval valued neutrosophic-fuzzy framework. This framework identifies fire risks and determine appropriate safety measures. In addition, essential fire risk criteria in healthcare centers were systematically identified through a multi-factor decision-making process, employing the Fuzzy-Delphi technique and a comprehensive literature review. The proposed framework initially determines the importance weights of these factors using the Interval Valued Neutrosophic-Analytical Hierarchy Process (IVN-AHP). Subsequently, three main parameters - Potential Risk Level (PRL), Acceptance Risk Level (ARL) and Protection Level (PL) - were calculated as alternatives in IVN-AHP technique using novel mathematical equations. A fuzzy inference system (FIS) was then employed to estimate the risk magnitude and subsequently classify departments within the healthcare building based on their risk level. The fire risk control strategy is then determined based on this risk classification. The proposed approach was applied to departments within a hospital in Iran. Its validity was evaluated by comparing the results with the comprehensive Fire Risk Assessment Method for Engineering (FRAME) technique. Additionally, the sensitivity of the IVN-AHP in determining the weights of factors and alternatives was validated using real data. The results revealed that the utilities and kitchen departments exhibited a critical risk class exceeding 50%. Furthermore, the operating room, laundry, post-NICU 1 and 2, and waste disposal were classified as critical, with more than 50% falling within the major risk class. A strong correlation coefficient of 99.1% was observed between the Fire Risk Magnitude (FRM) obtained using the proposed farmwork and the FRM for occupants obtained using the FRAME technique. These findings demonstrate the applicability and reliability of the proposed approach as a valuable tool for risk management and decision-making in healthcare facilities.

Key barriers and decision supports in revitalizing heritage buildings from investors' perspective in China: A case study in Guangzhou, China.

In the decision-making process for investing in heritage buildings (HBs), various factors such as costs, interests, and tenancy terms influence investors decisions. Understanding the motivations of these investors can facilitate the involvement of social forces with diverse interests in adaptive reuse projects. This paper examines the primary barriers to revitalizing heritage buildings through adaptive reuse decision-making. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: i) To explore the barriers faced by investors in the adaptive reuse of heritage buildings. ii) To provide a comprehensive review of the factors influencing the adaptive reuse of heritage buildings, with a particular focus on developing countries. Through structured interviews with 19 investors and field research, three typical categories in the adaptive reuse decision-making process were identified: i) tenancy terms, ii) function, and iii) fire control problems. These findings indicate that vacancy is detrimental to the protection of heritage buildings, while rent plays a significant role in safeguarding them, as revealed by a correlation analysis using quantitative methods. Policymakers should better understand the expectations and needs of the public investors better to enhance support for optimal adaptive reuse decisions.

Optimizing Adaptive Particle Swarm for Combined Fire and Storage Control FM Energy Reserve

Optimizing Adaptive Particle Swarm for Combined Fire and Storage Control FM Energy Reserve

Durability Capacity of Women Cultivators Under Pressure of Forest and Land Fire Control Regulation in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

This study aims to explore the conditions of pressure and durability capacity of women cultivators facing the pressures of regulation on forest and land fire control in Indonesia. The results of this study highlight that the scientific knowledge and patriarchal capitalism perspective contribute to product regulation in Indonesia, and then creating women cultivators as a non-class subjects. Thus, the woman cultivators are victims of that regulation. Women cultivators have various complex strategies and adaptations in dealing with multiple pressures under regulations on one site, corporations and food estate programs on other sites. The act of burning fields is not intended to fight the rules, but an act with no alternatives for survival from the lowest view. The act of burning is an act of utilizing the capacity to produce and reproduce the capacity of remaining food sources and the capacity for subsistence independence. Understanding the act of burning fields by Oloh Ngaju women cultivators is an effort to understand the farming activities as rationalized by individual actions within the limits of their interests and limit power (setting the limits to domination). So it is very possible to propose the concept of subsistence feminism to see the type of the grassroots women's movement.

AN IMPROVED MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE METHOD OF FULLY PREPARING THE DETERMINATION OF FIRING UNITS FOR HITTING THE INFORMATION AND CALCULATION COMPONENT OF THE AUTOMATED FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM OF COMBAT VEHICLES OF REACTIVE ARTILLERY

Context. As part of the automation of the fire control system of rocket artillery combat vehicles, in relation to the preparation of data for firing and fire control, the information and computing process of this system has been improved, namely, the mathematical model of the method of fully preparing the determination of installations for firing projectiles used in rocket salvo fire systems has been improved. In the system of differential equations of the mathematical model of the information and computing process of the component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of jet artillery, weighting functions for air temperature, wind influence for the active and passive sections of the projectile flight trajectory and the section of the opening of combat elements have been introduced, which allows determining the weighting coefficients for them for each projectile type. Objective. To improve the information and calculation component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of reactive artillery, by improving the mathematical model of the method of full preparation of the determination of installations for firing on damage. Having proposed a system of differential equations that will take into account the weighting functions of air temperature, wind influence for active and passive sections of the projectile flight path and the section of the opening of combat elements, and will also give the opportunity to determine weighting coefficients for each type of projectile based on them, which in turn will lead to an increase the accuracy of determining firing settings. Method. The proposed analytical method allows: to calculate the weighting coefficients for each type of rocket, characterizing the process of the approach of the rocket flight to the tabular trajectory and to set the initial conditions necessary for solving the differential equations of the mathematical model of the information-computing process of the component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of rocket artillery; to increase the accuracy of determining firing positions when performing firing tasks, which makes it possible to quickly respond to a change in the combat situation by means of changes in the softwaremathematical process of the automated fire control system; effectively and efficiently ensure the development or clarification of textual and graphic administrative and combat documents based on the results obtained using differential equations of the mathematical model of the information-computational process of the component of the automated fire control system. Results. The improved information and calculation component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of jet artillery was tested during the conduct of hostilities. The system of differential equations of the mathematical model of the information-computing process of the component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of reactive artillery ensures a timely response to a change in the situation in the information-computational process of the component of the automated fire control system of combat vehicles of reactive artillery during firing and fire control. Provides an opportunity to efficiently and quickly ensure the development or clarification of textual and graphic administrative and combat documents based on the information received during the execution of fire missions. Conclusions. The calculations based on the proposed system of differential equations confirm the improvement of the information-calculation component of the automated fire control system of jet artillery combat vehicles and allow timely response to changes in tasks in the information-calculation process during firing and fire control, as well as effectively and quickly ensure the formation of formalized messages and documents based on the information received during the execution of a fire mission by units of reactive artillery. Prospects for further research are the creation of agreed mathematical methods, models, algorithms and programs for the implementation of the goals and tasks of firing and fire control when compiling Firing Tables for prospective or received combat vehicles of reactive artillery from partners.

Analysis of the application potential of the "Kanonir" computer artillery range in the training of ground artillery specialists

An analysis of the technical capabilities of the computer artillery range (the "Kanonir" product) has been conducted to support the training of cadets and officers in artillery units on topics such as optical and aerial reconnaissance, target detection and acquisition, and execution of fire missions against moving and stationary targets using various methods to determine fire settings. The accuracy of object placement, structures, local landmarks, and characteristic landscape points on the simulator's 3D terrain map was verified by comparing coordinates and elevations. The accuracy of determining topographic data for targets, calculating corrections for deviations from standard firing conditions, and determining fire settings for various artillery systems with standard ammunition was also checked. The possibilities of using this computer range for performing individual fire missions on simulation tools were evaluated. A comprehensive analysis of this software product's capabilities for use in the training of cadets and officers of artillery units was performed. Based on the analysis results, the primary training areas in which the "Kanonir" product is appropriate to use were identified. The results of a pedagogical experiment conducted using the "Kanonir" product in the training of cadets in the "Shooting and Fire Control" course were presented. Additionally, practical recommendations were provided for preparing, setting up, using, and, overall, improving the effectiveness of this software in the training of cadets and artillery officers.

Influence Mechanism Study on Smoke Temperature Characteristics under Low-Pressure Tunnel Environment with Spatial Blockage Effects

This study focuses on the unique low-pressure environment of traffic tunnels in plateau regions, taking the scenario of severe damage caused by burning tanker trucks as the study starting point. By combining the Fluent simulation software with experimental data, the study thoroughly explores the impact of different traffic vehicle blockage effects on smoke diffusion and temperature field in tunnels during fires. The study emphasizes the blockage effects generated by traffic vehicles in both lateral and longitudinal spatial dimensions within the tunnel, aiming to investigate the temperature and smoke flow patterns in tunnel fires. The results indicate that the blockage ratio significantly affects smoke diffusion, whereas the influence of blockage length is relatively minor. At the characteristic height of the human eye on evacuation platforms, the impact of vehicle blockage effects is relatively limited, especially under the control of longitudinal mechanical ventilation airflow. Furthermore, both the blockage ratio and length have a significant impact on the maximum ceiling temperature. Based on the study of blockage ratio and length, a prediction model for the maximum ceiling temperature rise based on blockage ratio is proposed. This model fully considers the extreme fire burning and vehicle blockage effects in fire scenarios, providing strong data support for improving the level of fire safety and control in traffic tunnels.

Research on Fire Smoke Characteristics and Key Factor Evaluation in High‐Altitude Traffic Tunnels

ABSTRACTGiven the seriousness of fire safety issues in high‐altitude traffic tunnels, it is essential to investigate the spatial temperature characteristics under the coupling of multiple factors and their correlation with fire safety elements. This study systematically conducted full‐scale simulation analyses of highway tunnels to reveal the distribution of transverse and longitudinal spatial temperature as well as the longitudinal smoke diffusion patterns. Based on the simulation data, an integrated approach utilizing orthogonal test analysis, deviation analysis, and sensitivity analysis was employed to explore the impacts of various factors, including altitude, the transverse position of the fire source, fire scale, and wind speed, on tunnel fire safety. The results indicate that the influence of altitude on the longitudinal temperature along the arch and the position of spatial cross‐section characteristic points varies. Longitudinal ventilation speed is a relatively key factor affecting tunnel fire safety, particularly in terms of arch temperature and smoke backflow length, where its impact is significant. Additionally, fire scale has a notable impact on evacuation safety, with its overall influence ranking just below that of wind speed. In contrast, altitude and fire source position have relatively minor effects on tunnel fire safety. Inadequate longitudinal ventilation hinders the escape of personnel during tunnel fires, indicating that the design and operation of ventilation systems should be prioritized in fire prevention and control strategies. The findings of this study have significant practical implications for optimizing fire prevention and response capabilities in high‐altitude tunnels.

A 13,000-year history of vegetation and fire in a rare inland pine barrens: The Albany Pine Bush (Albany County, New York, USA).

Two radiocarbon-dated pollen and charcoal records from cores collected at Stump Pond and a wetland in suburban Albany County, New York, provide new insights into the environmental history of a unique inland pine barrens that is currently surrounded and threatened by urban development: the Albany Pine Bush (APB). The Stump Pond core shows that the pond formed roughly 13,000 years ago with the recession of glacial Lake Albany. From ca. 13,000 to 11,000 years ago spruce (Picea) and other boreal forest taxa were more common in the region than they are today, but both cores show that pine-oak (Pinus-Quercus) assemblages similar to those of today's APB have been predominant components of the local forests for the last ca. 11,000 years. Abundant charcoal in both cores demonstrates that fire activity was a frequent occurrence in the APB throughout its history, particularly for the last ca. 6400 years. Water tables rose in response to increasingly humid hydroclimates, leading to the establishment of the wetland site ca. 6400 years ago and a greater abundance of ferns and mosses there during the last millennium. More recently, expanding urbanization and its associated impacts demonstrate that human activity has become the primary driver of change in the APB ecosystem.