Disciplines Of Scientific Psychology Research Articles

Framing psychology as a discipline (1950-1999): A large-scale term co-occurrence analysis of scientific literature in psychology.

This study investigated the structure of psychological literature as represented by a corpus of 676,393 articles in the period from 1950 to 1999. The corpus was extracted from 1,269 journals indexed by PsycINFO. The data in our analysis consisted of the relevant terms mined from the titles and abstracts of all of the articles in the corpus. Based on the co-occurrences of these terms, we developed a series of chronological visualizations using a bibliometric software tool called VOSviewer. These visualizations produced a stable structure through the 5 decades under analysis, and this structure was analyzed as a data-mined proxy for the disciplinary formation of scientific psychology in the second part of the 20th century. Considering the stable structure uncovered by our term co-occurrence analysis and its visualization, we discuss it in the context of Lee Cronbach's "Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology" (1957) and conventional history of 20th-century psychology's disciplinary formation and history of methods. Our aim was to provide a comprehensive digital humanities perspective on the large-scale structural development of research in English-language psychology from 1950 to 1999. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Measurement without Copper Instruments and Experiment without Complete Control

One basic reason that measurement in psychology requires statistics is that psychologists do not use copper instruments anymore, as they used to do in the nineteenth century. Instead, they determine test or total scores on the basis of miniature experiments with discrete outcomes, and use a variety of standard statististical techniques for reaching conclusions on the basis of observed data.1Borsboom (2006) wants us to believe that psychologists are seriously misled in their hope that they can make progress this way, and recommends an invasion of psychometricians carrying IRT missiles and SEM guns into psychology. My prediction is that such an invasion would simply be ignored. That is not to say that whenever psychometric modeling really makes a difference, no attempts should be made to reach the mainstream of psychology. Indeed, many psychometric contributions that are obsolete according to Borsboom, like Cronbach’s alpha and exploratory factor analysis, in fact entered into the mainstream of psychology only because they tend to provide sensible answers to real problems, which cannot be easily surpassed. We should be more proud of them (even when a bit vulgarized), and carefully foster our accumulated knowledge base. Apart from strictly psychometric contributions, it has always been a task of psychometricians to introduce relevant new developments in the broad domain of mathematics and statistics into psychology. I am convinced that we should continue to do so, even when it concerns “observed score techniques” that are so detested in the focus article. Borsboom is right in pointing out that the impact of IRT modeling in academic psychology is limited, and that problems of measurement invariance and test bias are ill-understood and neglected (but of course the IRT movement always had a primary focus on its major successes in another discipline, educational testing). Of the factors that he mentions as hindering the fruitful interplay between psychologists and psychometricians, I have no quarrel with the substantive and with most of the pragmatic ones, but I fail to see the relevance of the theoretical factors. In the following, I will try to explain why, and offer an important factor overlooked by Borsboom, which has to do with the changing relation between Cronbach’s (1957) “two disciplines of scientific psychology.”

What we really know about our abilities and our knowledge

Recently, it has become popular to state that “people hold overly favorable views of their abilities in many social and intellectual domains” [Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognising one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 77(6), (1999) 1121]. Research that supports this point tells only half of the story—in a manner documented by Cronbach’s [Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 12, (1957) 671] classic article on the “two disciplines of scientific psychology.” That is, the recent research has only documented the experimental side of the scientific divide (which focuses on means and ignores individual differences). The current paper shows that research from the other side of the scientific divide, namely the correlational approach (which focuses on individual differences), provides a very different perspective for people’s views of their own intellectual abilities and knowledge. Previous research is reviewed, and an empirical study of 228 adults between 21 and 62 years of age is described where self-report assessments of abilities and knowledge are compared with objective measures. Correlations of self-rating and objective-score pairings show both substantial convergent and discriminant validity, indicating that individuals have both generally accurate and differentiated views of their relative standing on abilities and knowledge.

What does two disciplines of scientific psychology have to say to medical education?

What does two disciplines of scientific psychology have to say to medical education?

Psychological Assessment

Psychological assessment is one of the key disciplines of scientific psychology. During this century it has been confused with psychology itself. The activity of any psychologist—whether in basic and applied fields, with sophisticated equipment in the laboratory, or when employing psychological tests or other assessment methods in applied fields—involves assessment at some stage. In this article, a series of challenges at the end of 20th century and avenues for development for the forthcoming decades are described. First of all, a continuation of the progress made during this century can be expected. A second avenue reviewed is related to the relationships between new technologies and the cognitive and neuropsychological sciences. Moreover, it can be expected that new social needs will produce several challenges. Finally, it can be predicted that there will be advances in the control of the assessor's as well as of the subject's behaviors during the assessment process.

Response to Elliot W. Eisner’s “The Promise and Perils of Alternative Forms of Data Representation”

I n the August-September 1997 issue of Educational Researcher, there appeared an article by Elliot W. Eisner titled Promise and Perils of Alternative Forms of Data Representation. That article was based on an address that he had given the previous year, and he chose to the spoken (p. 4) in the article by using the first person throughout. I too would like to retain that same quality in my response. Elliot and I are former colleagues, and I offer the following in the spirit of friendly criticism. There are several arguments in his article with which I .. heartily agree, especially his advocacy of a broadened base / for what sorts of things should count as data, but there are a few others to which I take exception. In this response, I will concentrate on the latter. The first point of contention concerns Elliot's claim that Lee Cronbach raised fundamental questions about timehonored assumptions in doing (Eisner, 1997, p. 4) in his 1975 article Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology. The implication is that Cronbach endorsed more qualitative approaches to the advancement of knowledge. My reading of that article is different. Although he (Cronbach) may have raised fundamental questions, he did so in the context of interactions versus main effects, an issue that lies well within the realm of mainline quantitative research. The second place where I disagree with Elliot is in his claim that until quite recently discussions of qualitative research methods almost always were reduced to doing ethnography (Eisner, 1997, p. 5). I am one of those who were around then (Elliot's euphemistic term for all of us old-timers!) In reviewing my set of 25 years' worth of Educational Researcher, 1972-1997, I found that although there were discussions of ethnographic research by Lutz and Ramsey (1974), Overholt and Stallings (1976), Rist (1980), and Fetterman (1982) in the 1970s and early 1980s, there were also discussions of phenomenology, critical social theory, and other qualitative approaches. For examples, see Slavin's (1978) critique of Kerlinger's (1977) article regarding the influence of educational research on educational practice, Tanner and Tanner's (1979) concerns about William Pinar 's reconceptualist approach, Schubert's (1980) elaboration of Joseph Schwab's work, the general articles by Strike (1979), Shulman (1981), Smith (1983), Miles and Huberman (1984), and Soltis (1984) and Elliot's own excellent articles (1981,1983). A third disagreement concerns his juxtaposed sentences:

Creativity, Constitution, and Childhood

Toward the end of his complex presentation, Eysenck recalls Cronbach's (1957) statement that 'the two disciplines of scientific psychology'-namely, ... the experimental and the correlational (one focused on the field of generalized behavior, the other on individual differences)-can succeed only by cooperating with each other. Having devoted most of my professional life to idiographic observations of a few individuals, I am hardly qualified to assess the heterogeneous experimental data collected by Eysenck to justify his hypotheses; at the same time, my exposure to a psychoanalytic (and psychiatric) clientele weighted to the side of creative persons should permit me to measure Eysenck's generalizations against the particulars I have encountered my consulting room. I am happy to state, at the outset, that the successful creators described by Eysenck match almost every way the ones I have had the opportunity to observe. Because my patients were, ipso facto, disturbed people, I have also had a chance to study how it is possible for such psychopathology to develop tandem with the strengths and psychological assets that Eysenck (as well as others on whose work he relies) attributes to them. It is striking that, although Eysenck calls for historiometric study of the emergence of the various attributes in the development of genius, he nowhere refers to the relevant psychoanalytic literature of the past generation-reports such as those of Greenacre (1971), Rothenberg (1990), or my own (J. Gedo, 1983, press; see also J. Gedo & M. Gedo, 1992). In fact, the sole reference to the work of psychoanalysts is to Kris's (1952) book. At any rate, Eysenck rightly stresses that creativity (in contrast to the underlying potential he calls originality) is a function of personality traits. He points out that major creative accomplishments are very rare; the larger a particular creative domain terms of numbers, the smaller the proportion of truly successful practitioners is likely to be. His contentions are fully supported by the therapeutic experience of psychoanalysts: Effective treatment should alter the personality of talented individuals the direction of enabling them to do more successful creative work (see J. Gedo, 1983, chap. 3). In other words, childhood experience has a decisive role to play determining whether originality and talent will actually be used for creative ends. Although Eysenck supports the hypothesis that creativity might be a personality characteristic rather than a cognitive one, he does not discuss such relevant factors personality development as identifications with idealized parents or mentors, the capacity to invest passionately a specific field of activity as a result of transcending egocentricity, acquisition by means of appropriate nurturing of the ability to delay gratification and to develop courage, and so forth. Eysenck is well aware that, beyond cognitive factors, creative people

The Two Disciplines of Behavior Therapy: Research Methods and Mediating Variables

The title of this paper is an adaptation of the title of a classic paper by Lee J. Cronbach (1957). In “The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology” Cronbach analyzed two distinct and often antagonistic conceptual and methodological disciplines within psychology: correlational and experimental psychology. He argued for a rapproachment which would produce a stronger and more complete science by combining the advantages of both disciplines. Similarly, this paper analyzes two often antagonistic conceptual and methodological disciplines within behavior therapy: cognitive behavior therapy and the more traditional behavior therapy based on radical behaviorism. This analysis is based upon each approach’s use of research methodology and mediating variables. A literature analysis of a cognitive behavioral journal (Cognitive Therapy and Research) and a more traditional, radical behavioral journal (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis) is presented in order to determine more fully the nature and extent of the methodological differences between the two disciplines. A major thesis of this paper is that theory and methodology are interdependent. Therefore, differences in the use of mediating variables in the conceptual frameworks of the two approaches that are possibly supported by these methodological differences are examined. Finally, a suggestion for a methodological rapproachment between the two disciplines is presented.

ON THE RELATIONS AMONG EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PARADIGMS: FROM DISDAIN TO DETENTE2

Anthropology & Education QuarterlyVolume 8, Issue 2 p. 42-49 Free Access ON THE RELATIONS AMONG EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PARADIGMS: FROM DISDAIN TO DETENTE2 Ray C. Rist, Ray C. Rist National Institute of EducationSearch for more papers by this author Ray C. Rist, Ray C. Rist National Institute of EducationSearch for more papers by this author First published: May 1977 https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.1977.8.2.05x1394pCitations: 79 2 1. I wish to acknowledge the fruitful comments from Harold L. Hodgkinson on this topic. Our discussion sharpened for me several key issues raised in this paper. AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Becker, H.S. Whose Side Are We On Social Problems 14: 239– 47, 1967. Blalock, H.M. Social Statistics. New York: McGraw Hill, 1960. Broadhead, R.A., and R.C. Rist Gatekeepers and the Social Control of Social Research. Social Problems 23: 325– 26, 1976. Campbell, D.T., and J.C. Stanley. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963. Cohen, D., and J. Weiss. Social Science and Social Policy: Schools and Race.” Paper presented to the International Symposium on “Education, Social Science and the Judicial Process,” National Institute of Education, Washington, D.C., February, 1976. Cronbach, L.J., “Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology. American Psychologist 30: 116– 127, 1975. Denzin, N.K. The Research Act: Introduction to Sociological Methods. Chicago: Aldine, 1970. Deutscher, I. Words and Deeds: Social Science and Social Policy.” In W.J. Filstead (ed.) Qualitative Methodology. Chicago: Markham, 1970. Filstead, W.J. Qualitative Methodology. Chicago: Markham, 1970. Glaser, B., and A. Strauss. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine, 1967. Gouldner, A. The Coming Crisis in Western Sociology. New York: Basic Books, 1970. Homans, G. The Strategy of Industrial Sociology. American Journal of Sociology 54: 330– 337, 1949. Kuhn, T.S. The Origins of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. Merton, R.S. Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe (Ill.): Free Press, 1957. Mills, C.W. The Sociological Imagination. New York: Oxford, 1959. Myrdal, G. How Scientific Are the Social Sciences Journal of Social Issues 28: 151– 70, 1972. Patton, M.Q. Alternative Evaluation Research Paradigm. Grand Forks: University of North Dakota Press, 1975. Rist, R.C. Race, Policy, and Schooling.” In I.L. Horowitz (ed.) The Use and Abuse of Social Science. New Brunswick (N.J.): Trans-Action Books, 1975. Rist, R.C. The Invisible Children: A Study of School Desegregation in American Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977 (forthcoming). Scriven, M. Objectivity and Subjectivity in Educational Research.” In H.B. Dunkel, et al. (eds.). Philosophical Redirection of Educational Research. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1972. Shapiro, E. Educational Evaluation: Rethinking the Criteria of Competence. School Review 81: 523– 49, 1973. Smith, L. and W. Geoffrey. The Complexities of an Urban Classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1968. Suppes, P. The Place of Theory in Educational Research. Educational Researcher 3(6): 3– 10, 1974. Citing Literature Volume8, Issue2May 1977Pages 42-49 ReferencesRelatedInformation

COUNCIL ON ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION FUTURE HORIZONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION: THE VIEW FROM 1976

Anthropology & Education QuarterlyVolume 8, Issue 1 p. 31-35 Free Access COUNCIL ON ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION FUTURE HORIZONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION: THE VIEW FROM 1976 Robert B. Textor, Robert B. TextorSearch for more papers by this author Robert B. Textor, Robert B. TextorSearch for more papers by this author First published: February 1977 https://doi.org/10.1525/aeq.1977.8.1.05x1445oCitations: 1AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat REFERENCES CITED Bell, Daniel 1973 The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Blair, Philip M. 1972 Job Discrimination and Education, An Investment Analysis: A Case Study of Mexican-Americans in Santa Clara County, California, New York: Praeger. Connolly, Thomas 1976 Personal Communication. Cronbach, Lee J. 1975 Beyond the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology. American Psychologist 30(2). (Requests for reprints should be sent to Lee J. Cronbach, School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. Cultural Futurology Symposium (of the American Anthropological Association) 1970 Pre-Conference Volume. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Office of Applied Social Science and the Future. Cultural Futurology Symposium (of the American Anthropological Association) 1971 Pre-Conference Volume. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Office of Applied Social Science and the Future. Darmstadter, Joel 1971 Energy in the World Economy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Diamond, Stanley 1974 In Search of the Primitive. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books. Hirst, Eric 1974 Total Energy Use for Commercial Aviation in the U.S. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Kahn, Herman, and B. Bruce-Briggs 1972 Things to Come: Thinking about the Seventies and Eighties. New York: Macmillan. Lee, Dorothy 1961 Freedom and Culture. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Lee, Richard, and Irven Devore 1968 Man the Hunter. Chicago: Aldine. LaBelle, Thomas J. 1975 Liberation, Development, and Rural Non-Formal Education. CAE Quarterly VI(4): 20– 26. Mauss, Marcel 1954 The Gift. Glencoe: Free Press. Pelto, Pertti J. 1970 Anthropological Research: The Structure of Inquiry. New York: Harper and Row. Sahlins, Marshall 1972 Stone Age Economics. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton. Textor, Robert B. 1975a President's Report (on the ecological crisis and education). CAE Quarterly VI(2): 34– 35. Textor, Robert B. 1975b President's Report (on the need to internationalize Anthropology and Education). CAE Quarterly VI(3): 23– 25. Theobald, Robert 1968 An Alternative Future for America II. Chicago: Swallow Press. Theobald, Robert 1976 Beyond Despair: Directions for America's Third Century. Washington: New Republic Book Co. Waskow, Arthur I. 1969 Looking Forward: 1999. In Mankind 2000. Robert Jungk and Johan Galtung, eds. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Citing Literature Volume8, Issue1February 1977Pages 31-35 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Unifying the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology

Unifying the Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology

Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology.

Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology.

The two disciplines of scientific psychology.

The two disciplines of scientific psychology.